18th Century Britain

In diesem Beitrag wird ein Literaturautomat (1829) beschrieben, der über 4 × 10^155 Einakter generieren kann, was die Anzahl der Atome im Universum weit übersteigt. Die 1200 Textfragmente, die als Quelle für den Generator dienen, sind in dem Band »Neunhundert neun und neunzig und noch etliche Almanachs-Lustspiele durch den Würfel« abgedruckt und dort zufällig angeordnet. In 200 Würfen wird mithilfe einer Tabelle ein Einakter generiert. Einakter des 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhunderts waren zu ihrer Zeit populär, sind von der Forschung bisher aber weitgehend unbeachtet geblieben. Georg Nikolaus Bärmann bezieht sich mit seinem ironischen, aber eben auch sehr konkreten Projekt auf den hohen Bedarf an solchen Stücken, als er diesen gedruckten Einaktergenerator entwickelte, der laut Deckblatt Einakter für 133 Jahre produzieren kann. Der Beitrag beschreibt die mehrstufige Digitalisierung dieses Werks und die Entwicklung einer Webanwendung, die es ermöglicht, das analoge Spiel in einer digitalen Umgebung genauer in den Blick zu nehmen.

This two-day interdisciplinary conference, organised by Dr Adriano Aymonino, Dr Kira d'Alburquerque, Albertina Ciani Sciolla, and Dr Andrea Bacchi, investigates the role played by British-Italian artistic
exchanges in shaping sculptural models, themes, and genres between
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Albertina Ciani Sciolla, Between Art and Industry: Raffaele Monti’s “Veiled Women”.
Raffaele Monti is renowned for his famous Veiled Women, a genre that has
characterised his productions throughout his career. This paper explores
the evolution of this genre, from Monti’s first veiled woman, sculpted in
1845, to his last, dated 1871. Specifically, it examines how Monti adapted
and reinterpreted this Italian iconographic model for an Anglo-Saxon
audience, stimulated both by British aristocratic patronage and by the
commercial opportunities represented by the discovery of new materials,
such as Parian-ware.

The Sower is one of the most emblematic and popular figures in French numismatics. Its immediate and truly massive success merits an exploration of its genesis, not only under the magnifying glass of the period press, but also of existing numismatic iconography in the troubled socio-political context of the nascent Third Republic. This is a translation of a study submitted in 2020, which won first place in the five-year numismatic prize of the Cercle de Val de Salm (Belgium).

This study examines the series of events between 1704 and 1706, focusing on the peace negotiations of Rákóczi’s War of Independence (1703–11) took place in Hungary. This period can be observed as the climax of interest in the English political discourse given the pivotal role played by the English and Dutch mediators during the negotiations. I intend to narrow down the scope of the examination to the media appearances of those who shaped the course of the negotiations: the imperial diplomats and the English and Dutch envoys in two contemporary, essentially divergent, London newspapers, the London Gazette and the Daily Courant. I argue that the body of knowledge of the English public’s political discourse regarding the political landscape of the Kingdom of Hungary was complex and multifaceted and was incorporated into the London periodicals in diverse ways, emphasizing the diplomatic aspect in the pursuit of consensus. In accordance with the changing characteristics of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century diplomacy, negotiators, mediators, and delegates were monitored thoroughly in the public sphere, and therefore in the periodical press. Providing clear evidence of this, the newspapers I analyse here present the diplomatic events of the war of independence in a detailed and nuanced manner, while revealing significant differences in their news coverage.

In Western politics and philosophy of the 18 th century, concepts of balance, equality, and democracy experienced a groundbreaking contouring that continues to have an impact until today (see McMahon 2023). These issues were negotiated not least in the arts. Our thesis is that the parallelism and simultaneity of opposing views and ideologies led to a striving for equilibrium and harmony, and was articulated, for example, within the ideas of social justice and political equality, or the goal of levelling extreme economic and financial differences, an idealistic balance that ultimately paved the way for new concepts of societal order, respectively democracy.

In diesem Beitrag möchte ich aufzeigen, warum das Projekt mancher Royalisten, in einer Koalition mit Teilen des Establishments der "Islamischen Republik" die "Konstitutionelle Monarchie" wiederherzustellen, dem Versprechen ihres Königs in Wartestellung widerspricht. Denn die Etablierung eines säkularen demokratischen Staates steht im Gegensatz zur Legitimationsgrundlage eines "Königtums von Gottes Gnade" gemäß Artikel 35 der vorrevolutionären Verfassung. Doch zunächst soll erklärt werden, wie und warum diese Kooperationsbereitschaft zur Besitzstandswahrung der heutigen und ehemaligen Teile des Establishments als eine Konterrevolution entsteht.

During the French Revolution, thousands of French refugees migrated through the Channel borderlands. At least four thousand settled there. The Channel Island of Jersey served as the loci of migration where economic life operated under "refugeedom, " a polity both apart from and particular to state authority. Refugeedom-in its alterity-suggests a matrix of economic conditions, legal codes, and social relations that can explain the lives of people in the French Revolution's emigration. This study of economic migration off ers a way to reframe the French emigration as opportunism and resilience. Refugeedom serves as the analytic framework to understand economic migration, not only as a political crisis of displaced people in the midst of revolution-those seeking refuge from war, persecution, famine, and other hardships-but also as part of a strategy of survival, one that includes the economic migration of labor.

Contributing to the study of the emigration during the French Revolution, this article argues how this refugee community in Jersey was viewed by the host country as a domestic problem. Chroniclers have presented this problem within the framework of a dual migration: the first is the old regime military who sought Jersey’s proximity to France as a launch pad for invasion that failed dramatically; and the second, the female emigrant community in Jersey that included a large number of war widows, single mothers of military families, and female domestics. This study demonstrates a much more complex emigration, with its surges of refugees struggling to maintain a household, and its working classes seeking opportunities abroad.

With the publication of the Kilmarnock edition of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, Bums positioned himself in the literary marketplace through the creation of different literary personae. Among those Bums created in this edition the "ploughman poet" and the "Scotch Bard" are particularly important to subsequent views of Bums as one who personifies the romantic artist. Bums's near contemporary William Wordsworth defined his conceptions of the romantic artist or poet in the Preface to the Lyrical Ballads,! and his reactions to Bums both preceding and following the Preface demonstrate, if not a causal relationship between Bums and Wordsworth's theories of literature, then definitely a distinct parallel. But whereas Wordsworth sees the romantic artist as subjectively independent and timeless, his conception of the romantic artist does not take into account the impact of the marketplace and society on the artist; therefore the purpose underlying the creative act is often ignored or simply viewed in terms of an individualistic assertion of the artist's viewpoint. When viewed in terms of Raymond Williams' definition of the romantic artist and the social forces at work on him,2 Wordsworth's idealization of Bums as a separate and distinct entity dissolves into a product of a changing society and !William Wordsworth, "Preface, Second Edition of the Lyrical Ballads," English Romantic Writers (San Diego, 1967). Henceforth Preface.

The present article is the first to investigate in any detail the plant–animal analogies that are integral to Nehemiah Grew's Anatomy of Plants (1682). It focuses on three analogies that Grew used (either productively or critically) to produce novel accounts of vegetative processes: those between sperm and pollen, blood and sap, and mouths and roots. I suggest that Grew's analogical approach and specific mappings allowed him, on the one hand, to “see” plant features and functions that other botanists had overlooked, and, on the other, to determine when the analogies that other botanists deployed did not convincingly describe observable phenomena. On this basis, I argue, he was able to present what he, and several contemporaries, considered to be more accurate accounts of the nature of the vegetative parts and processes in question. More broadly, the article seeks to show that the analogical and observational were complementary aspects of Grew's method, and that, far from hindering his empirical endeavour, his analogies were crucial to it.

The French Revolution struck Western Europe like lightning and was the centre of the Enlightenment thought of the 18th century that changed the facts of society and politics for good. The foundations of the Enlightenment go back to the 17th century but this paper will focus on 18th century Ireland which became a loyal follower of revolutionary France and recruited Irish radicals to repair the decline of their country. However, the transmission of the events in France was not enough to rouse the whole country, so in the 18th century the place of the philosophers John Locke and Isaac Newton was taken by the political theorist Thomas Paine who appeared on the political scene not to rule but to inspire. Paine's reference in the report is remarkable for his leadership of the middle and lower classes of all the British Isles in applying French principles at a more critical time than ever before. The need for Paine's guidance, and therefore for change, seemed more immediate to the oppressed classes in Ireland, not because of economic and political discontent but because it resulted in an Irish revolution and demonstrated an unbridled commitment to Paine's call for radical change.

kindly allowed me to read in his home several files relating to Marlborough that were among the Churchill Papers from Chartwell in his custody. A number of scholars and specialists have given me general guidance. Professor R. M. Hatton of the London School of Economics pointed out to me the importance of Dutch and German writing and made some very useful criticisms of my projected plan of study. Dr. Henry L. Snyder of the University of Kansas was helpful in locating some Marlborough documents. Professor Ralph Davis, University of Leicester, kindly replied to my query on trade protection and the accuracy of trade statistics. Henry Kamen of the University of Warwick gave me some broad general advice at the outset of the study as did Dr. G. T>. Ramsay of St.

The article is part of a Brazilian-German research project dealing with the question if it
is (still) possible to speak about a Lutheran liturgical identity. The background in Germany and Brazil
is different: The German situation is characterized by growing secularism and explicit and implicit
demands to overcome inner-Protestant confessionalism. In Brazil, the idea of being 'Lutheran'
gains support, especially in contrast to the growing influence of Evangelical movements.
Discussing historical and current examples of Lutheran liturgical developments, the article argues
for a perspective describing Lutheran liturgical identity in its dynamics of transformation and
normatively identifying it with a dynamic of transformation.

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus follows an interesting timeline as it appears amidst the Industrial Revolution in the history of England as well as the ongoing Romantic Movement which was a revival to nature. This paper presents a combination of the Romantic elements in the novel like imagination and quest to seek the unknown as exhibited by the protagonist, with the monster as an allegory of the downtrodden section of society who suffered the consequences of industrial politics prevailing in 18th century Britain. It also draws parallel between the negligent government and the escapism of Victor Frankenstein from their own created ugliness. At the same time, the study reflects Shelly's critique against the excess of Romanticism resulting in transgression brings about instability and destruction after the displacement of the old order.

Das Spiel als Freizeitbeschäftigung in allen seinen Ausformungen war in der Neuzeit sowohl von mittelalterlichen Bewertungen als auch vom Humanismus geprägt. Vom 16. bis ins 18. Jahrhundert gilt eine ambivalente Grundhaltung, wo das Spiel geachtet und gefördert, gleichzeitig aber auch verteufelt und verboten wurde. Verantwortlich für diese Auffassung waren u. a. gesellschaftliche, wirtschaftliche, soziale
und religiöse Umwälzungen nach der Zeitenwende von 1500.

Data and information obtained and consulted in the compilation of this report has been derived from a number of secondary sou rces. Where it has not been practicable to verify the accuracy of secondary information, its accuracy has been assumed in good faith. Any information accessed from external databases (e.g., NLHE, HERs) represents a record of known assets and their discovery and further investigation. Such information is not complete and does not preclude the future discovery of additional assets and the amendment of information about known assets which may aff ect their significance and/or sensitivity to development effects. All statements and opinions arising from the works undertaken are provided in good faith and compiled according to professional standards. No responsibility can be accepted by the author/s of the report for any errors of fact or opinion resulting from data supplied by any third party, or for loss or other consequence arising from decisions or actions made upon the basis of facts or opinions expressed in any such report(s), howsoever such facts and opinions may have been derived.

Internal The west end 'bothy' compartment. 52-105 Internal The Central Compartment, including dovecote. 52-69 Internal The north, east and south passages of the Central Compartment. 70-74 Internal External walls of the dovecote within the Central Compartment. 75-91 Internal Internal views of the inserted dovecote. 92-105 Internal Detailed views of flagged and concrete flooring in the Central Compartment north, east and south passages. 106-118 Internal The eastern 'whelping kennels' compartment.

This document reports on a process of archaeological evaluation conducted between November 2022 and February 2023 in association with the redevelopment of High House chapel, located on the north side of the A 689 a little to the east of the village of Ireshopeburn in upper Weardale. The excavations took place alongside structural consolidation works to the outer walls and windows, following the removal of flooring and the majority of ground floor fixtures and fittings from the chapel interior, but prior to major reconstruction works. The evaluation, carried out after the removal of flooring revealed traces of internal walls, was intended to expose the footings of structures at the east end of the main hall sufficient to produce a ground plan for further interpretation. Accordingly, a trench was cut north-south across the east end of the chapel interior with branches eastwards to a partition wall demarcating the main hall from an eastern entrance foyer. Additional areas between the south side of the trench and partition wall to the east were swept, rather than excavated, in order to reveal features partially visible on the surface.

For more than half a century, the field of Newton studies was characterized by a long and “exciting chase,” as Richard H. Popkin aptly described the painstaking process of reading, transcribing, attempting to date, understand and interpret the multitude of Newton’s manuscripts.1 Sometimes, the chase brought remarkable discoveries; but quite often it ended in puzzles, paradoxes and unanswered questions. Take, for example, one decade of Newton’s life, from 1670 to 1680. In these years Newton undertook extensive research in optics and published his first paper on light and colors; he engaged in extensive controversies over refraction, the nature of light and colors and the role of experiment in natural philosophical demonstrations; he wrote (and published) an extensive paper on light sometimes characterized as “alchemical cosmology”2; he worked on advanced mathematics, corresponded with Boyle on the nature of chemical bonding, corrected and rethought his initial theory of the aether; c...

It is not surprising that in 1813 Captain Laskey referred to the Renaissance shield in Hunter's collection as a work of 'great antiquity'. 1 There may be no surviving record of the object entering Hunter's collection, or any mention of this particular object in the Trustees' catalogues, but the shield represents a number of interesting points of practice in the field of antiquarianism during the eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries in Britain. In 1813, Hunter's shield was categorised under 'miscellaneous curiosities' because scholarship and research of ancient artefacts, based on material evidence, was still a largely new practice. In fact, Hunter's shield points up the inconsistencies that characterised antiquarian methods whenever there was an attempt to reconcile ancient texts with physical objects or reproductions of those objects. The only clue that remains and is relevant to this object in Hunter's original collection is a letter from Dr Wilkinson to Dr Hunter dated August 17 th 1779. In this letter, Dr Wilkinson makes the offer of an ancient shield to be placed in Hunter's museum at 16 Great Windmill Street. 2 Dr Wilkinson was a physician, a member of the Society of Antiquarians and the Royal Society and the shield that he was offering was the famous 'Dr Woodward's shield'. This object, now in the British Museum, has a long and intriguing history which is worth recalling here as an example of the sorts of questions Hunter's shield would have prompted and as an indicator of Hunter's own expertise and connoisseurship. Dr John Woodward (1665/1668-1728) was Professor of Physic at Gresham College, London, a member of the Royal College of Physicians, London and first Professor of Geology at Cambridge University. 3 He is considered to be the founder of modern Geology and his ideas expressed in An Essay Toward a Natural History of the Earth (1695) 'stands at the beginning of modern historical paleontology'. 4 Woodward famously confronted Sir Hans Sloane at the Royal Society and fought a duel with Dr Richard Mead as well as publishing a satire on his character. 5 He was, however, an avid collector and his museum at Gresham College was visited by Ralph Thoresby, an antiquarian and collector from Leeds (1658-1724) and the traveller and writer, Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach (1683-1734), among others notable intellectuals. He had an abiding interest in Roman antiquities and published a book on London's Roman 1 This appears to be the first reference to the shield in Hunter's collection. See Captain John Laskey, (1813) A Catalogue of the Hunterian Museum, Including Historical and Scientific Notices of the various Objects of Literature, Natural History, Anatomical Preparations, Antiquities, &c. In that Celebrated Collection, Glasgow. At p. 73, he writes: "Many other Miscellaneous Curiosities are placed on this side of the Room, the most prominent of which, and deserving of the highest attention from its great antiquity and workmanship, is a Roman Target or Shield, in a high state of preservation, and supposed to by unique. It consists of a hollowed round piece of wood, which is covered with a thick stronger leather, beautifully carved; the principal figure is Minerva helmeted, her right hand holding erect a spear or lance; her left reclining gracefully on an aegis or shield of an antique form, on which is portrayed Medusa's head. Her attributes, the Owl, Cock &c. surround the figure, the remainder of the surface is filled up by pointed tracery, foliage and flowers. It is an article of great rarity and beauty".

An 1813 guide to William Hunter’s collection describes a Renaissance shield under ‘miscellaneous curiosities’ and my research here describes how scholarship and research of ancient artefacts, based on material evidence, was still a largely new practice during the early nineteenth century. This analysis demonstrates inconsistencies in antiquarian methods whenever there was an attempt to reconcile ancient texts with physical objects or reproductions of such objects.

The Seven Years’ War in West Africa was a minor sideshow in a globe-spanning military conflict. Only French and British forces fought in Africa, confining their armed battle to the French-ruled island of Saint-Louis at the mouth of the Senegal River and Gorée Island, both of which the British occupied in 1758–1759. This chapter explores the immediate and long-term impacts of this conflict on the French and British colonial empires and African and Eurafrican communities in Senegambia. It discusses British ambitions to capture the European trade in gum arabic and to destroy France’s transatlantic slave trade. It also examines French and British aspirations to turn African land into new sites of cash crop production. The chapter contends that although Africa rarely gains attention in studies of the history of the Seven Years’ War, it was the pivot around which the battle for the future of European empires turned.

This paper examines a unique 18th-century countermarked inn token, which was first recorded in 1871 and resurfaced at auction in 2023. Struck on a worn halfcrown of William III, the token was produced in 1796-7 by the Worcester innkeeper Benjamin Fieldhouse to advertise his acquisition of the Crown Hotel, a prominent coaching inn on Broad Street. The use of a valuable silver coin as a token blank hints at a deliberate strategy of 'audience targeting', which would have allowed Fieldhouse to advertise his premises and services to a select clientele of gentlemen, lawyers, clergymen, and wealthy businessmen.

Studies of county communities have characterized British social histories since the 1950’s, including works such as Wrightson and Levine’s seminal, Poverty and Piety in an English Village: Terling 1525 1700, which reoriented the focus of the tradition of county histories. A less common approach has been the comparative study of towns in the early modern period, as is attempted in this study. Comparative histories have the potential to contextualize and contrast the experiences of individual parishes within broader county and national frameworks and therefore provide a broader investigative scope. The towns of Thaxted and Braintree have been selected for comparison due to their similar socio-economic structures but both parishes also featured closed local councils which acted semi-autonomously. These forms of governance became increasingly common over the seventeenth century, however Thaxted and Braintree were two particularly early examples of parish independence. This study therefore examines the demographic profiles of the members of these common councils and to what extent these parishioners utilized their powers of authority in the enactment of poor provisioning. Close textual analysis has been undertaken for the minutes of
Braintree’s Company of the Four-and-Twenty meetings as well as the account books of the Thaxted Corporation and the charity known as Yardley’s, in order to determine the extent to which parish power relations were enacted on a day-to-day basis. The impact on local policies of religious nonconformity will also be examined and situated within the broader religious changes during the period. Finally, the attitudes of the parish elites towards poverty and vagrancy will be dissected with regard to their enforcement of the poor laws and charitable provisioning.

Of the many thousands of Irishmen who left their country, from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, to enter military service in Europe, few have left traces enough to amount to a life story. James Devenish, who rose to eminence abroad, was one of those whose memory was soon lost to his kin in Ireland, but the archives of Belgium, the Blenheim Papers in London (thanks to his fortunate, and perhaps not quite fortuitous, connection with the first Duke of Marlborough) and other sources have yielded enough material to permit this sketch, not only of his career, but of his regiment (its Musters; Pay; Clothing; and Officers) and his family. CAREER The Gazette d'Amsterdam of 17 August 1736 carried this report: Brussels, 7 August. Mr. Michael O'Connor, a young Irish gentleman recently arrived here, was presented to the archduchess by the Marquis Devenish, lieutenant-general in the Imperial armies. He had the honour of playing this evening for her serene highness and a great many of the court on a small Irish harp, which he did with such charm and skill that the archduchess, in token of her satisfaction, presented him with a fine gold medal of considerable value.

This paper explores the archaeology of one of the more recently excavated 'convict hut' sites, the structures associated with early convict occupation (c.1788-1818) of the colonised agricultural landscape of what is now Parramatta in New South Wales. The paper primarily examines what substantive conclusions can be drawn from what could be considered repetitious archaeological sites: one hut in a long line of huts. The work focuses on the temporal and spatial constraints of evidence from the Club Parramatta site, building on the legacy of excavations that have occurred over the last 40 years. The results are framed through a conceptual lens of assemblages of practice and make use of comparative artefact analysis of three huts. We argue that New Materialism is particularly helpful for avoiding dualistic interpretations, such as convict/free, and instead allows for more nuanced and active understandings of people in the past.

Quand je ne serai animé que de l'amour du bien, rien ne m'arrêtera". This is how Samuel Demissy (1755-1820), a renowned merchant and ship owner from La Rochelle, replied to his cousin Pierre-Samuel Meschinet de Richemond on 26 December 1789. More specifically, Demissy referred to his adherence to the Society of the Friends of the Blacks (Société des ami des noirs) and his determination to uphold the abolitionist cause in the National Constituent Assembly. My paper aims to clarify why and how a French slave trader like Demissy could come to this apparently paradoxical conclusion and to which extent his unusual political and intellectual trajectory can enrich our understanding of the contradictions of abolitionism. After years spent studying the economic cultures of French merchants and planters and their relation to imperial state-building in the Caribbean colonies, I believe that Demissy's case, hardly explored by scholars

This article examines wall-paintings and other wall decorations designed after the Chinese style, which are preserved in the eighteenth-century, aristocratic residences in the Czech Republic (formerly the kingdom of Bohemia). The readers’ attention is directed toward locally made decorations which represent various stages and modes of  Chinoiseries in Central Europe, and which have not been put together in a single survey before.
The earliest group of interiors, imitating lacquer, seldom survived and is now rare. About thirty interiors feature wall-paintings which draw on European chinoiserie rather than Chinese originals, besides, there also are painted emulations of Delft tiles with ‘Chinese’ images. The closely related "Illusionist exotic landscapes", are also discussed.
The surviving interiors eflect the diversity of Chinoiseries in wall decorations, and, to a certain extent, follow chronological order.

The archives of the Equitable Life Assurance Society (1762−1835) at the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries, London, contain policy records which include date and place of birth and occupational information. These records predate the creation of the General Register Office and were created at a time when personal records tended to be scarce. The research question was whether the policy records had a value as a potential genealogical source. Case studies, genealogical standards, archival appraisal criteria and demographic analysis were used to objectively assess the genealogical value of the records. The appraisal considered them from the perspectives as both prima facie genealogical records and as a contextual resource for a genealogical inquiry. The study found that the records had evidential value as a complementary genealogical source. Evaluation suggested that the quality of the records was good in terms of reliability, consistency with other primary sources and completeness. They also provided information that was not available in other traditional sources. Through case studies it was demonstrated that information about life insurance could bring an additional dimension to the appreciation of people's lives in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

This article significantly adds to the literature on the value of financial accounts, demonstrating their worth as both an autobiographical and biographical source. It argues that elite accounts can be seen both as a biography of the master, and an autobiography of the servant. It demonstrates this through analysis of the remarkably detailed Chirk accounts for the period 1642-1666, and the relationship of Thomas Prichard and Sir Thomas Myddelton II. This article uncovers insights into Myddelton's life and character while revealing Prichard's life in detail for the first time. This article provides a new model for considering financial accounts as both family chronicle/biography, and history from below/autobiography. Examining the accounts as a self-designed mirror for Myddelton and as a way of discovering the lives of his senior servants and household, the article casts new light on early modern social relationships.

His work on the recoinage informs our understanding of the debate and offers an important glimpse into the economic world of the 1690s as it moved from a specie monetary-base driven view of policy to one founded on financial instruments. 2 The recoinage plan put forward by Locke and his supporters (in most if not all its principles) was eventually adopted. Davenant proposed an alternative in two unpublished contributions, 'A memorial concerning the coyn of England' (1695) and 'A memoriall concerning creditt' (1696), which describe the functioning of the English credit system at the cusp of the Financial Revolution. The Financial Revolution itself is more than just the institutional developments, such as the creation of the Bank of England in 1694, that took place during the last part of the seventeenth century and the early part of the eighteenth century in England. 3 The emergence of new financial instruments fundamentally changed the way that commerce was viewed. The English monetary system was no longer based only on the coins of the realm, but was now something much broader, incorporating paper money, bills of exchange and various financial instruments that underwrote merchants, the military and the state itself. 4 83 1.

Political Cartoons are actual significant portion of all newsprints. Political cartoons beautify a minor part of a weekly, regularly in the curve of the editorial. This portion have accepted to be operative and powerful culture trappings that consist of newsprint readers of all credentials. It is appropriate that the newsprint has presently turn out to be emerged and is currently a important declaration network, that trinkets general public's attention and expending various tools of interactive judgements and awareness since a specific view on opinion over political cartoons. This paper emphases at demonstrating how daily editorials have political cartoons also, the art becomes informative tool and as medium of placing nationwide interest agenda expressly, contented research was done to form the subjects kept in the cartoons exemplifications. The qualitative method was engaged to inspect the cartoons and illustrations over semiotic investigation process. Qualitative investigation of political cartoons was conducted through survey technique to recognize how community notices political cartoons over newspapers. Thus, this study also underwrites the political cartoon examination by participation of hypothetical observation to the variety of cartoons together case study of renowned Indian political cartoonist R.K. Laxman, the man who was unusual but then again became communal over editorials.

This study is primarily concerned with how the Caroline Navy was run, both in theory and in practice. Previous assessments of early Stuart naval administration have generally been superficial and unsympathetic in tone, but this new work, in shedding fresh light on a variety of themes, attempts PREFACE In the process of writing this thesis I have incurred many debts of gratitude. I owe most thanks to my supervisor, Professor Conrad Russell, whose generosity with his time frequently exceeded the call of duty, and whose keen eye and sharp mind saved me from innumerable errors of Judgement. I owe scarcely less thanks to Mr. Roger Lockyer, who initially stimulated my interest in the early Stuart Navy while I was an undergraduate. Mr. Lockyer read the whole of the second draft, and made many perceptive observations which have served to improve the quality of the text. In addition, I should like to thank Dr. Roger Morriss of the National Maritime Museum for his comments upon Chapter 3, Mrs. Sabrina Baron for her observations on an early draft of Chapter 1, and Dr. David Hebb for many invaluable discussions at the outset of my research.

The existence of a self-regulating arbitrage mechanism under the gold standard has been traditionally considered as one of its main advantages, and attracted a corresponding research interest. This research is arguably relevant not only to test for the efficiency of the "gold points", but also to study the evolution of financial integration during the so-called first era of globalization. Our first aim with this paper is to contribute to the enlargement of the scope of the literature by considering the case of Portugal that adhered to the system, in 1854, at a much earlier phase than the majority of countries, thus allowing for a broader perspective on the evolution of the efficiency of the foreign exchange market. As a typical "peripheral" country, Portugal can be used as the starting point for a study of the degree of integration of the periphery within the system. Furthermore, the Portuguese exchange also illustrates the role in practice of large players in sustaining currency stability, over and beyond the atomistic forces of arbitrage and speculation assumed in conventional theoretical frameworks. We also address the question of the credibility of the authorities' commitment to the standard, through the perspective of the target zone literature. We thank Helena Monteiro and Paulo Sousa for valuable assistance in identifying and gathering the data. Rui Esteves also gratefully acknowledges the financial support from the Fundação Luso-Americana para o Desenvolvimento (FLAD), and from the CEMPRE-Centro de Estudos Macroeconómicos e de Previsão. The CEMPRE is supported by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal, which is financed by European Union and Portuguese funds.

Like most English press reports on the first partition of Poland, the author of an opinion piece from 1773, published in the Public Advertiser under the pseudonym "Tullius", believed that of the three powers dividing Poland, the Prussian interest could be the most dangerous both for the national interest of Britain and for the future of the European balance of power. It is significant that in almost all cases where the interests of Britain and the question of intervention were invoked in English opinion pieces, the defence of the continent's political balance appeared as a strong argument. Through a critical discourse analysis of relevant opinion pieces published in London newspapers between 1771 and 1774, I point out how the authors used similar or different balance-of-power rhetoric, while occasionally deeper, polemical balance-of-power discourse to reflect their views. I illustrate that the authors of these articles have applied the concept essentially in relation to the following three themes: (1) the "diabolical alliance" of the partitioning powers, (2) the issue of British intervention, and (3) the criticism of the idle British government. One of the main conclusions of my analysis is that the balance-of-power discourse is most prominent in relation to the third issue, sometimes even leading to a general questioning of the legitimacy of the contemporary balance-of-power policy.