18th Century Philosophy

According to Berrios (2014), the ancient concept of 'sympathy' originally referred to a supposed affinity or force that connected all natural objects together. Adam Smith's theory of moral sentiments (Smith, 1759/1817) represents a turning point, because here the term 'sympathy' is used to explain the way in which human beings relate to and feel for each other. Scholars working on the concept of empathy in philosophy, psychology, neuroscience, and psychopathology will find interesting insights into this topic here, since many of the problems that will characterize the future debate on empathic understanding are already present in Smith's work. Smith discusses the epistemological problem that our senses cannot directly grasp what the other person is experiencing. Senses, he writes, never did, and never can, carry us beyond our own person, and it is by the imagination only that we can form any conception of what are his sensations. Sympathy, adds the author, does not arise so much from the view of the passion, as from that of the situation that excites it. In every passion the emotions of the observer always correspond to what, by intuition, he imagines should be the experience of the sufferer. Given a situation, the observer imagines what he would feel in that situation, and therefore it is on the basis of this conception that he can judge the appropriateness or otherwise of the other's reaction in the same circumstances. Finally, in one paragraph Smith also discusses the problem of the possibility of understanding the person with mental problems, writing that usually those who observe from the outside feel anguish because they imagine being reduced to the same unhappy situation, while perhaps the patient at that moment is indifferent to his own misery. The interesting point that the author raises is that the observer feels anguish because he imagines himself in the situation but with the reasonableness and lucidity that he has now, without considering that the other is not in the same state. An important reminder, this, that empathy cannot be a direct projection of oneself into the other, but an effort to imagine how one might feel being in the other's condition.

En este trabajo mi propósito es revisar el papel peculiar que desempeña la filosofía del arte dentro del sistema hegeliano. Se argumenta aquí que el estudio de los rasgos esenciales de esta rama de su pensamiento reviste un particular peso e interés para entender no solo la naturaleza del arte, en cuanto mero fenómeno estético, sino también como instancia de reflexión y de comprensión de un amplio registro de fenómenos sociales y culturales que son de gran importancia para los seres humanos.
Para defender este punto desarrollo una revisión de la tesis de la noción del “carácter pretérito del arte” (Vergänglichkeit der Kunst) en Hegel. Con ello pretendo mostrar cómo una reinterpretación de esta noción puede resultar fértil a fin de comprender el horizonte teórico de posibilidades que se encuentra disponible para la filosofía del arte.

O presente artigo tem como objetivo analisar como o modelo teleológico da história humana proposto por I. Kant em alguns opúsculos de filosofia da história e na Crítica da faculdade de julgar (1790) serve como fundamento para a defesa do voto censitário feita pelo filósofo na Doutrina do direito (1797). Com esse objetivo em vista, o artigo se divide em três partes. Na primeira, nos dedicamos a explicitar a distinção entre cidadão ativo e cidadão passivo pela qual se decide quem pode participar do sufrágio no direito kantiano. Em seguida, explicamos como a divisão desigual do trabalho, que sustenta a diferença das cidadanias, é defendida por Kant como necessária ao aperfeiçoamento cultural da humanidade. Por fim, afirmamos como consequência desse modelo de desenvolvimento histórico a integração sistemática das desigualdades de gênero e de raça numa sociedade baseada no direito kantiano.

This volume has its genesis in a conference on Enlightenment Epicureanism held at Magdalen College, Oxford, on 17 June 2006. We are grateful to the Faculty of History at the University of Oxford, to the Royal Historical Society and to the Voltaire Foundation for their support of the conference. The conference would never have taken place without the help of Christopher Brooke and Laurence Brockliss at Magdalen and Perry Gauci at Lincoln College. Nicholas Cronk at the Voltaire Foundation was particularly generous with his advice. John Robertson was of invaluable assistance leading up to the day of the conference, and offered salient and insightful comments in the concluding session. The articles have been read and reviewed by scholars who have been very generous with their time. Along with anonymous readers, we would particularly like to thank

O objetivo do presente capítulo é apresentar e discutir alguns aspectos da teoria da identidade pessoal de David Hume (1711-1776) exposta no Tratado da natureza humana (1739-1740). Apresentarei a compreensão humiana em quatro momentos da obra. Em primeiro lugar, discuto as afirmações do filósofo sobre a natureza da alma na seção "Da imaterialidade da alma" (1.4.5) do Livro I ("Do entendimento"). Na sequência, apresento a discussão humiana da identidade pessoal no principal texto do filósofo a esse respeito, a célebre seção “Da identidade pessoal” (1.4.6). Por fim, encerro o capítulo com a discussão dos comentários de Hume sobre a identidade pessoal no “Apêndice” da obra.

Déborah Blocker (Romance Languages and Literatures Doctoral Program — University of California, Berkeley)

Colloque Traduire la Poétique, 4-5 mars 2021
LETRA — Seminario di Traduzione Letteraria
Proposition de communication

Titre : "Rien n’est beau que le Vrai » : l’abbé Batteux dans la Babel des Quatre Poétiques (1771)"

Abstract :
«  Rien n’est beau que le Vrai », assène le frontispice allégorique des Quatre poétiques d'Aristote, d'Horace, de Vida et de Boileau, avec les traductions et des remarques par M. l'abbé Batteux, un ouvrage en deux tomes parus en 1771 — avec, à l’appui de cette affirmation, une gravure qui met en scène une séduisante Vérité poétique s’imposant, en une sensuelle apothéose, à quatre « philosophes ou poètes » par elle ardemment fascinés (Aristote, Horace, Vida et Boileau). L’ouvrage comprenait la traduction et/ou le commentaire des « quatre poétiques » que l’abbé Charles Batteux— alors professeur de philosophie grecque et latine au Collège Royal, membre de l’Académie Française et celle des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres — jugeait les plus centrales à la tradition poétique européenne. Ces deux tomes élégamment imprimés chez Saillant & Noyon, étaient sans doute principalement destinés aux étudiants des classes de rhétorique des collèges de plein exercice, mais ils pouvaient néanmoins s’enorgueillir de la protection du Dauphin — auquel l’ouvrage était dédié — et restaient, dans leur énonciation, à la portée d’un public mondain ou même aristocratique.
« Rien n’est beau que le Vrai — oui, enfin, peut-être. Mais le Vrai — au moins, le vrai en matière de poétique — comment le trouver, au milieu du dédale des traductions et des commentaires de la Poétique d’Aristote, parus en Italie, en France et en Hollande depuis la traduction d’Alessandro de’ Pazzi, en 1536 ? En 1771, la Poétique d’Aristote parle en effet la plupart des principales langues européennes, et la cacophonie des traductions tout autant que des commentaires est devenue assourdissante. Dès lors, comment faire parler à la Babel poétique une seule langue — celle du Vrai, au moins de ce vrai auquel soi-même on adhère ?
Cette communication examinera comment, dans ce livre, Batteux s’oriente, mais surtout nous oriente, dans la forêt obscure de la poétique, en juxtaposant traductions, commentaires et gloses du texte aristotélicien. On y étudiera en particulier quelles formes Batteux donne à la tradition poétique dans le cours de la confrontation des textes d’Aristote, d’Horace, de Vida et de Boileau, et comment il la recompose. Le « Vrai » apparaîtra-t-il en fin compte en matière poétique ? Et, si oui, comment s’incarnera-t-il, entre choix de traductions, notes de bas de page et remarques savantes ? Centrée sur l’étude d’un seul livre, cette enquête pose néanmoins une question plus vaste, cruciale pour la réception d’un texte tel que la Poétique : comment se créé et se diffuse, entre traduction et commentaires, une tradition interprétative — et surtout comment se manipule-t-elle, dans et par le livre ?

(authors) Hisashi FUJITA, Masashi NAKAHATA, Hiroyuki YAMAGUCHI, Emiri AMANO, Yasuto KIYAMA, Ryusuke OKAJIMA, Yasushi HIRAI
(title) The Power of Intellectual History : Joint Review Meeting for the Japanese Edition of History of the Theories of Memory : Lectures at the College de France 1903-1904 by Henri Bergson

nómico de Centroamérica en los últimos seis años, las tensiones sociales no muestran señales de disminuir. Al contrario, están aumentando. El crecimiento económico per se puede ser algo muy conveniente, pero el crecimiento que no se acompaña de un aumento en el bienestar general es un factor poderoso para crear situaciones revolucionarias. Después de todo, la revolución mexicana de 1010, y la cubana de 1958, no ocurrieron en sociedades económicamente estancadas, sino en ottas en que el crecimiento para la obtención de beneficios de los empresarios estaba a la orden del día. Todavía no podemos saber si se olvidará en Centroamérica la lección de estos dos sucesos históricos.

Dans cette œuvre « à deux faces » que nous livre le marquis de Sade, comment passer d’un théâtre moral, conventionnel, à l’horreur implacable du roman clandestin ? Rien de plus simple, nous glisse l’auteur, il ne suffit que d’élargir la scène, de passer du gros plan de la représentation dramatique au plan large de la narration romanesque, bref, de rapprocher ou d’éloigner « le point de vue de l’optique ». Car le défaut n’est pas dans l’objet, il est niché dans le regard de celui qui observe. Envisager, comme nous nous proposons de le faire ici, la « fracture » entre l’œuvre clandestine et l’œuvre officielle en termes de jeu sur les échelles et sur les dimensions est une manière de mettre l’accent sur la nécessaire complémentarité de ces deux productions, sur ce qui ramène insidieusement la démesure du geste transgressif à l’expression d’une théâtralité codifiée.

This paper aims to determine whether Darwin’s theory of evolution was influenced by German Naturphilosophie. I start with a brief presentation of Naturphilosophie, a scientific and aesthetic approach that emphasizes the holistic understanding of the natural system and the interrelation of its parts. As I show, Naturphilosophen acknowledges the existence of a specific relation of reciprocal causality between various parts of nature, and recognize the valuable causal agency of life in the natural system. Moving forward, I analyze Darwin’s theory of evolution and identify the fundamental hypotheses of his conceptual framework. Since Naturphilosophen endorse a holistic conception of nature, and highlight the presence of reciprocal causality between its parts, I examine whether Darwin adopts any of these assumptions about the natural system. I turn to his understanding of the struggle for survival – a phenomenon that captures various relations between organisms and their environment. My analysis shows that Darwin recognizes the causal activity of the natural environment, but neglects the ability of organisms to modify their habitat for the sake of survival. Thus, he establishes the causal asymmetry between these two fundamental parts of his worldview. If that is the case, then Darwin’s theory does not represent a (fully) holistic worldview of nature, and the influence of Naturphilosophen on the formulation of his evolutionary theory is only partial.

Michael Oakeshott é quase unanimemente visto como um pensador cético, especialmente os que se debruçam sobre sua filosofia política. Pretende-se aqui identificar quase seriam os elementos que caracterizam seu ceticismo, bem como apresentar impasses para sua identificação com alguma corrente específica da história do pensamento. Serão considerados como elementos céticos aparecem sobretudo em seus ensaios sobre a política. Primeiro identificando contra quais visões políticas seu ceticismo se insurge ("as políticas da fé" e o racionalismo) e depois propriamente expondo o que Oakeshott determina como "política do ceticismo". Em último lugar, será apresentada a consideração que o autor faz do Leviatã, que caracteriza Hobbes como um cético e ajuda a iluminar o próprio ceticismo de Oakeshott.

In his Lectures on the History of Philosophy, Hegel famously described the philosophy of Spinoza in the following way: "The fact is that Spinoza is made a testing-point in modern philosophy, so that it may really be said: You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all." Among the reasons why Spinoza's philosophy is so influential is the seemingly impenetrable deduction of substance monism, at the core of which the Principle of Sufficient Reason (henceforth referred to as the PSR) and the notion of existence as a predicate are found. After Spinoza's airtight demonstration of substance monism was completed and unveiled to the philosophical public, it went unmatched for many years; philosophers of Spinoza's time (and a bit afterward, too) attempted to defeat it, but, confined to the rationalist framework of their day, many of them either offer less convincing or rigorous arguments, or combat Spinoza's philosophy based on the grounds of religious or political doctrine. The only thing that contends with Spinoza's philosophy is a paradigm shift in thinking; more specifically, a paradigm shift that affects at least one of Spinoza's assumptions (either the PSR or notion that something exists).

L’article examine la critique par Émilie Du Châtelet de certaines femmes bibliques comme modèle moral. Dans ses Examens de la Bible, la marquise rejette en plusieurs lieux l’interprétation conventionnelle (catholique ou protestante) de ces figures pour les soumettre à une critique rationnelle, souvent provocatrice. Alors que l’influence du féminisme anglais du XVII siècle sur la marquise paraît incertaine, sa critique mine la lecture française traditionnelle de ces « héroïnes ».

In this article, I go against some interpretations of the "Träume eines Geistersehers" that read this work as the outcome of a profound crisis in Kant’s thought, triggered by the reading of Swedenborg and ending with the complete abandonment of his entire philosophical production. To do so, I highlight the continuity, on the methodological level, between the Träume and the texts of the 1760s that precede it, in particular with the "Deutlichkeit". Having clarified some of the principles of the analytical method developed by Kant in the latter text of 1762, especially the role played by language in determining the content of the concept, I show how, in the "Träume", Kant employs this method for analyzing the concept of spirit. Nevertheless, I take into account the specific epistemology adopted by Kant in the "Träume" and the effect it has on the relationship between method and metaphysics, the reconfiguration of which can be observed in the pages of the "Träume". In contrast to the narrative that paints Kant as skeptical about metaphysics, I thus show how metaphysics was rather subject to a conceptual transformation that prepares the outcomes of Kant’s later thought.

In this paper, I analyze the concept of passions in Kant, trying to answer the question: are passions good for society or are they the source of evil and irrationality? I begin by showing the danger of passions, if compared with affects. In the Anthropology, as well in the Religion, Kant claims that passions are the evil we should fight against. More than inclinations, or affects, the evil principle refers to passions. However, in the Ideia for an Universal history with a cosmopolitan aim, Kant admits that passions are good for society. They are not the cause of their irrationality, but the possibility of the development of the natural predispositions of human being. I claim that we have two distinct answers in Kant, and I try to understand this ambiguity.

In den Monumenti antichi inediti behauptet Winckelmann, man könne die "Schönheit" grundsätzlich nicht begreifen oder definieren: "L`impossibilità di definire la bellezza nasce dall´esser ella una cosa superiore al nostro intelletto" (Winckelmann, 2015 [1767], 64). Verschiedene Dimensionen und Formen des "Negativen" prägen in der Tat den sogenannten "Klassizismus" und differenzieren ihn am klarsten von anderen Kunstarten (Realismus, Manierismus, Gotik, Barock, Romantik, usw.): so beispielsweise das Verweisen auf Ideen, die nicht ausgedrückt werden können, eine radikale Entsubjektivierung (im Akt der Kunstproduktion und der Kunsterfahrung), die konstitutive Notwendigkeit, zugleich aber auch die Unmöglichkeit der Nachahmung in der Kunst, die ziemlich radikale Verdrängung von Gefühlen, Visionen, Erlebnissen, usw. Der vorliegende Aufsatz verfolgt zwei Hauptziele: Die vielen Elemente der Negativität hervorzuheben, welche die kantische Definition der "ästhetischen Idee" innerhalb der Kritik der Urteilsraft von 1790 charakterisieren (Sek. 1). Kants Philosophie der Künste in den Kontext der neoklassischen Reflexion zu stellen, zu der sie konstitutiv gehört und von der aus allein sie richtig verstanden werden kann. Gegen oder zumindest unabhängig von bestimmten zeitgenössischen Aktualisierungen der kantischen Kunstphilosophie (Sek. 2.), fordern wir hier, wenn auch nur programmatisch, die Notwendigkeit einer möglichst genauen Kontextualisierung derselben (Sek. 3.).

Sarah Chapone (1699-1764) foi uma filósofa britânica notável por sua obra “The hardships of the English laws in relation to wives” (1735), onde ela argumenta que as leis inglesas colocavam as mulheres casadas em uma situação de escravidão, negando-lhes a identidade de “súdito livre”. Inspirada por Mary Astell e precursora de Mary Wollstonecraft, Chapone defendeu a igualdade intelectual entre homens e mulheres e reivindicou direitos civis e liberdade legal para as mulheres. Em sua obra, Chapone utiliza exemplos de julgamentos e casos de violência contra mulheres para ilustrar a tirania masculina e a injustiça das leis. Ela também se baseia em Thomas Hobbes para discutir as noções de liberdade e poder paterno e materno. Além disso, Chapone critica a falta de equidade legal, onde os homens eram frequentemente absolvidos por tratamentos brutais contra suas esposas, enquanto as mulheres não tinham propriedade nem direitos sobre seus filhos ou bens. A filósofa também questiona o papel da polidez e do cavalheirismo da época, mostrando que a violência contra as mulheres era comum e não se restringia às classes pobres. Ela também destaca o dano psicológico causado pelos maus tratos e a falta de reparação legal. Chapone argumenta que a isenção de punições civis para as mulheres era um problema, pois as privava de serem vistas como súditas livres e de terem livre agência social. Apesar de ter escrito pouco, Sarah Chapone é reconhecida por sua coragem em desafiar as normas de sua época e por suas contribuições para o feminismo cristão. Suas obras incluem “The hardships of the English laws in relation to wives” e “Remarks on Mrs. Muilman’s Letter to the Right Honourable The Earl of Chesterfield”. Sua correspondência com Samuel Richardson também é considerada importante para entender seu pensamento. A recepção de sua obra foi mista, com críticas de homens que consideravam suas reivindicações injustas e exageradas. No entanto, seu trabalho foi fundamental para o desenvolvimento do pensamento feminista e para a luta pelos direitos das mulheres, que só encontraram reparação legal muitos anos após sua morte.

This paper examines the philosophical debate between Salomon Maimon and Immanuel Kant, with a focus on Maimon’s critique of Kant’s dualism and the epistemological challenges arising from the latter’s "Critique of Pure Reason". Kant acknowledged Maimon’s profound insight into his philosophy, particularly on the foundational questions of cognition: “quid facti?” (what are the facts?) and “quid juris?” (what justifies these facts?). Kant’s attempt to reconcile the sensory and conceptual realms through the schema of time is met with skepticism by Maimon, who proposes a unified foundation for understanding and intuition. Drawing inspiration from calculus and Leibniz’s infinitesimals, Maimon develops a differential approach to cognition, suggesting that the human mind synthesizes reality through an interaction of infinitesimally small cognitive elements.

Keywords: differential theory of cognition, sensibility and understanding, epistemology, infinitesimal calculus, mind and world

Marquis de Sade est né en 1740 en France. Il était un aristocrate, écrivain et philosophe. Il a écrit des livres sur la liberté, la violence et le désir. Ses idées étaient très choquantes pour son époque. À cause de ses écrits, il a été emprisonné plusieurs fois. Il a passé une grande partie de sa vie en prison ou dans un asile. Ses livres les plus connus sont "Justine", "Juliette" et "Les 120 Journées de Sodome". Pendant la Révolution française, il a été libéré un moment. Mais sous Napoléon, il a encore été arrêté. Il est mort en 1814. la vie de

Übersetzung der in Deutschland damals weitgehend unbekannten Schrift An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690/1700) bei einem Antiquitätenhändler. 1 Als ich mich lange mit der traurigen Überzeugung von meiner Unfähigkeit gequält habe, kömmt einmal ein alter Büchertrödler zu mir […], und bringt mir […] Peter Costens französische Übersetzung von Lockens Werke über den menschlichen Verstand in einem braunledernen altväterischen Bande. […] Ich fieng an zu lesen und zitterte schon zum voraus, daß ich nichts begreifen würde. Drollich ! ich begriff alles: der Mann machte mir freylich oft Langeweile, die aber, wie ich nunmehr bemerke, von seiner gedehnten Manier zu denken und der weitschweifigen Schreibart herkommen möchte; gleichwohl las ich emsig, so viel es meine Geduld zuließ. Das war mein cursus philosophiae: er zündete in meinem Kopfe ein Licht an, als wann ich vorher nur geträumt hätte, und ihm nebst einer Recension von Unzers Physiologie in der allgemeinen Bibliothek hab' ich mein ganzes philosophisches System zu danken[.] 2 1 John Locke: Essai philosophique concernant l'entendement humain […]. Traduit de l'Anglois […] par Pierre Coste, Sur la Quatriéme Edition, revûë, corrigée, & augmentée par l'Auteur, Amsterdam 1700. Locke betreute die Übersetzung im Jahr des Erscheinens der vierten, erweiterten Originalauflage. Eine deutsche Übersetzung von Engelhard Poley war seit 1757 auf dem Markt.

Although Les Philosophes was an ordinary comedy, and Palissot was far from the caliber of Molière or Voltaire, it successfully consolidated conservative criticisms of the philosophes within a satirical framework, enjoying a successful three-month run in 1760. The reason behind its success was that it was at the center of a debate between the Enlightenment philosophers and the Counter-Enlightenment figures. In addition to being an example of 18th-century French comédie, the play serves as a valuable source for understanding the key points of conservative discourse of the time. While Palissot seemed to focus on attacking individual philosophes’ personalities, he paired these attacks with conceptual critiques, and directed the most of his criticism primarily at Diderot and Rousseau. The play remains significant for two reasons: First, it captures almost all of the concerns and arguments of the conservative reaction to the Enlightenment. Second, it sheds light on Enlightenment thinkers' personal and intellectual struggles. This paper examines Palissot’s Les Philosophes not as a mere literary dispute but as a rich text that reveals the Counter-Enlightenment discourse that emerged in the second half of the 18th century.

In the early modern period the chain of being thesis was used by naturalists and philosophers to justify female subordination. My aim is to establish whether Catharine Trotter Cockburn's endorsement of this thesis entails that differences between sexes assigns differentiating places in the scale or not. I will review Locke’s formulation of the ontological scale first, because Cockburn refers to his description. Locke’s skepticism regarding our access to the real essence of substances hinders him from drawing unequivocal boundaries between species and even within human species. However, he states that wives must subordinate to husbands on the basis of a higher capacity and strength naturally endowed to men. Cockburn’s understanding of the ontological scale rests on a realist conception where boundaries between species are clearly delimited because their nature is fixed and immutable. This insight into the ontological scale is employed to endorse natural equality between sexes, because if all members of a  species share the same nature, they deserve equal treatment. Cockburn explains women subjection in terms of vicious notions and attitudes rooted in prejudice.

George Berkeley’s (1685–1753) condemnation of freethinking arose from
the social, political, and, above all, moral repercussions that he believed this heterogeneous group was bringing about in British society. In the first part of this paper, I set out the challenges posed by the freethinking movement, drawing extensively on Berkeley’s Alciphron. In the second part, I address both the reasons behind his aversion to freethinking and his response, which involved advocating for the union of Church and state and while rejecting secular governance. This analysis relies primarily on lesser-known works from Berkeley’s socio-political writings. The paper
argues that Berkeley’s opposition to freethinkers was driven by his concern for the public good and his belief that the Christian religion, particularly in its Anglican tradition, was the most effective means to achieve it.

In Western politics and philosophy of the 18 th century, concepts of balance, equality, and democracy experienced a groundbreaking contouring that continues to have an impact until today (see McMahon 2023). These issues were negotiated not least in the arts. Our thesis is that the parallelism and simultaneity of opposing views and ideologies led to a striving for equilibrium and harmony, and was articulated, for example, within the ideas of social justice and political equality, or the goal of levelling extreme economic and financial differences, an idealistic balance that ultimately paved the way for new concepts of societal order, respectively democracy.

In the eighteenth century, three camps of scientific thought appeared within the French scientific community: the Cartesians, the Newtonians, and the Leibnizians. According to the accepted physics argued by Fontenelle, Descartes, Malebranche, and Mairan, momentum, not force, was the essential quantity of motion. While Newtonians and Leibnizians agreed upon the significance of gravity and force, they bitterly disagreed with respect to momentum as the essential measurement of force. According to Newton, momentum and gravity were the main type of forces essential to movement; as with Cartesian mechanics, Newtonian momentum was given by the product of the mass and velocity. For philosophical and scientific reasons, Leibniz favored the vis viva, or -kinetic and potential forces,‖ the modern conservation of energy, as the essential quantity. Despite the support of experimental evidence, French Newtonians failed to convince the Cartesian establishment, and fewer scientists accepted the Leibnizian system. This heated debate spread from the most esoteric mathematical circles to the French educated public through the essays by notable personalities such as Moreau de Maupertuis, Voltaire, and the Marquise Gabrielle-Emilie du Châtelet. Scholars have traditionally published or written little about Gabrielle-Emilie du Châtelet outside of her associations with Voltaire, due to her few formal publications. Recently, the historical community has started to review her contributions--as both a scientist and as a translator--to eighteenth-century mechanics. In collaboration with eminent mathematicians Jean Bernoulli, Maupertuis, Alexis-Claude Clairaut, and Leonard Euler, she successfully argued the scientific validities of Newtonian and Leibnizian mechanics by adapting her ideas into the first French calculus textbooks and by working toward the modern concept of the energy conservation law. Like many eighteenth-century philosophers, Du Châtelet primarily used the letter both privately and publicly to challenge and to explore. The series of letters between 1737-1741 used numerous rhetorical tactics to construct and formulate a series of image-based and logical arguments to support the vis viva or the forces vives. Through constructing these -thought experiments‖ on paper, she successfully facilitated the spread of Newtonian ideas, sparked and persuaded in scientific debate, and unified Newtonian and Leibnizian theories into classical physics.

By the late eighteenth century, strolling gardens had become a craze of the public throughout Europe. Whereas the French insistence on formalism in gardens satisfied the rules of the intellect with its symmetrical lanes, vegetation wrenched and twisted into topiary and espaliers, the emergence of the English landscape garden drove the imagination into the opposite direction of near lawless design through serpentine lanes, ponds, and paths leading to different rooms, the rejection of geometrical patterns, and the feeling of movement in every perspective. In this short public address by Schiller, he advocates for the German taste in gardens to strike a balance between the two extremes and to discover its unique style on a par with its nation’s taste in other aesthetic and moral categories. Schiller comments on the addition of the garden at Hohenheim to the 1795 calendar tour of gardens made by the theorist Christian Clay Lorenz Hirschfeld. Schiller commends this addition for the surprising and seeming contradictions brought into harmony when viewed from the point of view of each contributing to the whole. Schiller praises this garden for its exaltation of both art and nature, for the man of high culture is brought back to feeling, while the simple man is elevated through imagination and reason. This is no doubt a continuation of Schiller’s theory given in the Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Mankind that imaginative play not only harmonizes both matter and form, but also elevates them both by incorporating higher aspects of each into one another. For Schiller, the artful arrangement of the garden excels at achieving this act of play.
The German text can be found in Friedrich von Schiller, Sämmtliche
Werke, Original-Ausgabe, 18th volume, Wien: 1820, 266–76.

Evren,  insan aklının dikkatini çekecek biçimde derin anlam ve düşünceye yol açan gizlerle kaplıdır. Düşünce tarihinin tüm dönemlerinde varlık ve varoluş üzerine  düşünsel  eylemler gerçekleştirilmiştir.  Bu  bağlamda  Leibniz  gibi  pek  çok büyük  filozof,  varlığın  nasıl  meydana  geldiğini  sorgulayarak  varoluşun  hayretler uyandıran  durumuna  dikkat  çekmiştir.  Bu  sorgulamalar,  her  zaman  merak duygusuna  hâiz  zihinleri  harekete  geçirmiştir.  Bazıları,  bu  tarz  soruların  yanıtı olmadığını  söylerken,  bazıları  da  insanın  anlam  arayışında  bu  soruların  olası cevapları olabileceğini söylemiştir. Antik dönemde Aristoteles gibi filozoflar, bilme isteğinin insan doğasının önemli ve vazgeçilmez bir unsuru olduğuna değinerek söze başlarken,  modern  dönemde  ise  Kant  gibi  büyük  filozoflar,  insan zihninin  doğal olarak  metafizik  kavramlar  üretmeye  yatkın  olduğunu  söylemiştir.  Bu  durum  ise bilginin, varlığın gizemini anlamada her dönemin büyük zihinlerini konu üzerinde kafa  yormaya  sevketmiştir  ki  varlığın  anlamı  ve  mahiyeti  söz  konusu  olduğunda vardığımız yer, bunlarla doğrudan ilgilenen din ve bilimin birbiriyle karşılıklı ilişkisi olmuştur. Çünkü varoluşun hem mahiyet hem de bünyesinde barındırdığı sorulara cevap verme iddiasında bulunan en önemli alanlar şüphesiz ki din ve bilimdir. Bu bağlamda  modern  döneme  etkisi  bakımından  akla  gelen  ilk  isimlerden  biri  olan Alman  Filozof  Immauel  Kant’ın  günümüze  değin  pek  çok  filozof  teolog  ve  bilim insanına ilham olan görüşleri hâlâ daha günümüzde canlılığını korumaktadır. Genel kanı, Kant’ın metafiziği yıktığı ve din ve bilim arasında bir uzlaşmazlık olduğunu ileri sürdüğü yönündedir. Hâlbuki onun bilgi anlayışı metafiziği yıkmaktan ziyade yeni bir metafizik inşa etmek üzerine kuruluydu. Bu bağlamda onun bilgi felsefesi açısından  din  ve  bilimin  ifade  ettiği  anlam  çalışmamızın  ana  konusunu  teşkil etmektedir.  Çalışmamızda  ilk  olarak  Kant’ın  eserlerinden  hareketle  onun  bilgi anlayışını inceledik. Daha sonra ise metafiziğin en temel meselelerinden olan Tanrı, ahlâk  ve  ölümsüzlük  gibi  dinî  kavramların  onun  epistemolojisinde  neye  tekabül ettiğini  soruşturduk.  Çalışmamızda  bahsi  geçen  din  ve  bilim  modellerinden ayrışmacı/bağımsızlık modelinin Kant’ın din ve bilim ilişkisine yönelik görüşlerine daha  uygun  olduğu  tezini  temellendirmeye  çalıştık.  Genel  kanının  aksine  onunmetafiziği yıktığı değil yeniden inşa ettiği, din ve bilim arasında ise çatışmacı değil ayrışmacı/bağımsızcı bir görüşe daha yakın olduğu sonucuna ulaştık.

espanolEn este articulo se muestra que la teoria de la justicia y la libertad que Axel Honneth desarrolla en El derecho de la libertad tiene un mayor alcance y profundidad que aquellas teorias de la justicia y la democracia desarrolladas en el liberalismo contemporaneo por Rawls y Habermas. Sin embargo, su modelo normativo del reconocimiento tiene una seria limitacion, que consiste en circunscribir el alcance de su concepcion de la libertad a las sociedades mas desarrolladas de Occidente. Esta limitacion afecta negativamente su propuesta, produce una perdida importante de su potencial critico y determina que su planteamiento normativo y reconstructivo de la historia de la libertad sea insuficiente frente a otras visiones criticas de la sociedad. El autor hace primero una presentacion de la tension entre las dimensiones negativa y positiva de la libertad. En segundo lugar, reconstruye la forma como Honneth expone el proceso historico de la lucha por la libertad, y estructura asi una ...

espanolEn este articulo se muestra que la teoria de la justicia y la libertad que Axel Honneth desarrolla en El derecho de la libertad tiene un mayor alcance y profundidad que aquellas teorias de la justicia y la democracia desarrolladas en el liberalismo contemporaneo por Rawls y Habermas. Sin embargo, su modelo normativo del reconocimiento tiene una seria limitacion, que consiste en circunscribir el alcance de su concepcion de la libertad a las sociedades mas desarrolladas de Occidente. Esta limitacion afecta negativamente su propuesta, produce una perdida importante de su potencial critico y determina que su planteamiento normativo y reconstructivo de la historia de la libertad sea insuficiente frente a otras visiones criticas de la sociedad. El autor hace primero una presentacion de la tension entre las dimensiones negativa y positiva de la libertad. En segundo lugar, reconstruye la forma como Honneth expone el proceso historico de la lucha por la libertad, y estructura asi una ...

Referência do artigo comentado: AZIZI, Diego dos Anjos. Os Ensaios de Michel de Montaigne como exercícios do juízo. Trans/form/ação: Revista de Filosofia da Unesp, Marília, v. 47, n. 6, e02400242, 2024. Disponível em: https://revistas.marilia.unesp.br/index.php/transformacao/article/view/15931.

This chapter explores the role of epic in the emergence of nationalism by
examining the intersection of Germanic myth and the Hebrew Bible. During the latter half of the eighteenth century, there was a growing fascination in and appreciation for the ancient customs of ‘natural peoples’. Among this esteemed group, which included nations like the Celts and Germans, the Hebrews were prominently featured, showcasing a culture in which the epic held great significance. It was during this period that biblical interpreters started to interpret Hebrew poetry as a means of creative expression, providing insights into the worldview of ancient humanity.

This paper argues both a historical and a systematic thesis. In the historical sense, it is argued that Kant rehabilitates the concept of negative magnitudes between 1790 and 1792. In the systematic sense, it is argued that this rehabilitation is a transcen- dental rehabilitation. In the introduction, the place of the concept of negative magni- tudes in Kant’s career is presented. In the second section, its pre-critical significance is explained, emphasizing its ontological dimension. In the third, fourth and fifth sections, respectively, the psychological, cosmological, and moral significance of this concept is explained. In these sections, the explanation of these three different meanings follows the order of Kant’s publications between 1790 and 1792. Following this order, the con- cept of negative magnitudes is seen in the Analytic of the Sublime of the Critique of Judgment (1790), in the essay On the Failure of Every Philosophical Essay in Theodicy (1791), and in the essay On Radical Evil in Human Nature (1792). In the conclusion a general remark is made on the concept of the negative in Kant. Here it is argued that the transcendental rehabilitation of negative magnitudes is an exception in the development of his thought. | Keywords: evil, negation, negative magnitudes, sublime, theodicy, reality.

There are two axes of Leibniz's philosophy about bodies that are deeply intertwined, as this paper shows: the scientific investigation of bodies due to the application of mathematics to nature-Leibniz's mixed mathematics-and the issue of matter/bodies idealism. This intertwinement raises an issue: How did Leibniz frame the relationship between mathematics, natural sciences, and metaphysics? Due to the increasing application of mathematics to natural sciences, especially physics, philosophers of the early modern period used the reliability of mathematics to predict phenomena as the basis to infer the metaphysical outlook of nature. I argue that although Leibniz thought metaphysics must be scientifically informed and that mathematics is a valuable instrument to understand nature, metaphysics is more fundamental than mathematics and natural sciences. By highlighting the foundational relation between metaphysics and the sciences, this paper showcases an argument for the reality of bodies: the ideality of bodies, necessary for epistemic purposes, is not proof that they are not real.

Philosophy significantly contributes to the inheritance of human thought and the humanistic spirit. Traditional explorations in philosophy, often rational and abstract, may struggle to engage deeply with human emotions and experiences. This article delves into the expression of philosophical ideas through vocal music, particularly during the Romantic era, to bridge this gap. By examining the integration of philosophical concepts into 19th-century vocal compositions, the study highlights how vocal music can serve as a potent medium for philosophical discourse. It explores the symbiotic relationship between vocal music and philosophy, analyzing how arias express and pursue philosophical inquiries. This research evaluates the role of vocal music in philosophical exploration through three dimensions: emotional expression, conceptual communication and inspirational impact. The findings aim to demonstrate the transformative power of music to convey philosophical thoughts, inspiring deeper contemplation of life, existence and values, and encouraging a reevaluation of the unique capacity of vocal music to communicate profound ideas.