Ancient myth and religion

Petridou, G. (2024) ‘Between Pergamum, Athens, and Eleusis: Illness and Initiation in Aelius Aristides’, in G. Woolf, I. Bultrighini, and C. Norman (Eds.), Sanctuaries and Experience: Knowledge, Practice and Space in the Ancient World, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 369-394.

Petridou, G. and Rüpke, J. (2021) ‘The Impact of Textual Production on the Organisation and Proliferation of Religious Knowledge in the Roman Empire’ , in J. Rüpke and G. Woolf (eds.), Religion in the Roman Empire, Kohlhammer Verlag, Die Religionen der Menschkeit Bd 16.2, 234-261.

This paper examines rituals of the hearth from a comparative viewpoint in two almost neighbouring areas, the Balkans and the Caucasus, in order to identify similarities and differences in ideology, in symbolic actions associated with marriage (bride incorporation), the division of the multinuclear family, the customs of the annual cycle, etc. My paper is based on fieldwork in Greece and Armenia, and on unpublished ethnographic and folklore material, as well as on published works by Greek and foreign scholars.

Rev. Études Sud-Est Europ., LIV, 1–4, p. 1–384, Bucarest, 2016

L'azione politica del proletariato non solo è un'azione di classe tendente all'emancipazione e allo svincolamento di una classe dalla sua soggezione e schiavitù ad un'altra ma è anche, contemporaneamente e in una prospettiva più ampia, lotta per l'emancipazione di tutta la società, lotta per la liberazione di tutti gli uomini. Ogni conquista, ogni vittoria del proletariato è quindi anche, dialetticamente, una conquista e una vittoria di tutti, anche degli altri.

This thesis examines a late medieval alchemical treatise known as the Aurora Consurgens, which is ascribed to the early decades of the fifteenth century. The Aurora was among the first of its kind in a tradition of poetico-rhetorical alchemy that became popular in the late Middle Ages and early modern period. While it is indisputable that early Latin alchemical
texts contained allegorical language and religious symbolism, the Aurora heralded a new form of alchemical literature, where mysticism became thoroughly and inseparably interpolated with the operations of the laboratory. The Aurora is framed as a dialogue between an unnamed alchemist and Sapientia, a female embodiment of God’s wisdom, which in the text, is conflated with the philosopher’s stone. This thesis focuses on a series
of visions that appear throughout the document. These visions invoke the unitive imagery of late medieval mystical theology and contain many of the themes that appear in medieval contemplative literature. These are, namely, the image of the ‘cloud’ that appears in the tradition of pseudo-Dionysian mystical theology, motifs of darkness and illumination, purgation, and union with the divine. The principal argument contends that the author of the Aurora Consurgens used the motifs of mystical theology to elucidate his understanding of the alchemical work.

The Rigveda is not a historical text: it is a liturgical text. But, being the oldest text in the world, and especially being the oldest Indo-European language text in the world, it is the database for the oldest data concerning the history of the Indo-Europeans, and contains numerous incidental references to human persons in the course of its liturgical compositions. History is not the story of Gods and Creation, it is the story of historical personalities, and the Rigveda (like its related text, the Zoroastrian Iranian Avesta) contains incidental mentions of numerous people. It is necessary to understand the exact ways or contexts in which the names of persons appear in the Rigveda: I. The Beneficiaries of the Rescue or Aid of the Gods. II. Contemporary "Dānastutis". III. Nature Myths and Human Identities. IV. Mythical "Ancestral" Figures. V. Personalities in Historical Contexts. VI. The Most Baffling and Mysterious References in the Rigveda. VII. Appendix: Saramā and the Paṇis.

The Great Pyramid of Gizeh, a marvel of ancient engineering, stands as a testament to a civilization that possessed profound knowledge of both the physical and metaphysical realms. Its construction, dating back at least 25,000 years, reflects a mastery of astronomy and mathematics that surpasses modern understanding. Beyond its structural significance, the Pyramid embodies the esoteric teachings of ancient Egypt, symbolizing the union of spirit and matter, the pursuit of wisdom, and the eternal struggle between light and darkness.

The Great Pyramid is believed to be the first true Masonic temple, embodying the universe and representing the inner sanctuary of Egyptian wisdom. It is seen as a repository for secret truths, symbolizing the Microcosm (man) and the Macrocosm (universe). The pyramid’s construction and purpose are shrouded in mystery, reflecting the ancient world’s policy of concealing knowledge through symbolism and allegory.

The Great Pyramid, a symbol of the world and material existence, represents the labyrinth of life’s trials and temptations. Initiates into the Mysteries, seeking wisdom, transcended religious boundaries, recognizing the universality of spiritual truths. True religion, according to the Mysteries, is not about dogma but about realizing the connection between the individual and the universal self, unlocking the mysteries of existence through knowledge and understanding.

The Great Pyramid served as a sacred site for ancient seekers of truth, symbolizing the awakening of the divine spark within humanity. Through initiation rituals, candidates underwent a symbolic death and rebirth, gaining spiritual enlightenment and understanding of the universe’s eternal nature. This process, akin to a second birth, transcended time and granted the initiate a profound connection to the divine.

The Great Pyramid of Giza holds profound spiritual significance, embodying ancient wisdom and enlightenment. Its construction, a testament to human ingenuity, reflects a deeper understanding of the universe and the divine. Despite its grandeur, the pyramid’s true purpose remains elusive, sparking ongoing fascination and speculation about its origins and significance.

Animal sacrifice, once among the most universal of religious practices, is now among the most reviled and rejected. This article explores how a small number of Modern Nordic Pagans in the United States are experimenting with recreating the practice of animal sacrifice as part of their project of revitalizing past tradition.

El  nuevo  corpus  de  inscripciones  oraculares  de  Dodona  ha  suscitado  un  interés  renovado  en  el  santuario.  En  este  marco, son varios los estudiosos que han llamado la atención sobre  la  necesidad  de  revisar  la  creencia  establecida  sobre  la  importancia  del  agua  en  Dodona,  si  bien  hasta  el  momento  no  se  ha  realizado  un  análisis  completo  de  todos los testimonios, tanto literarios como epigráficos y arqueológicos, que es precisamente el objetivo del presente trabajo.  Como  demuestra  el  estudio  contrastado  de  la  información aportada por los distintos tipos de fuentes, y en especial los nuevos datos sobre el oráculo que han revelado las laminillas oraculares, no hay pruebas concluyentes que permitan confirmar que el agua tuviera un papel relevante en el culto o en la práctica oracular.

The Carpathian Basin played a crucial role in spreading metallurgical technology across Europe. Furthermore, the significance of the region is exemplified by its abundant copper finds in the Early and Middle Copper Age (4500-3700 cal BCE). On a typological basis, the Great Hungarian Plain was linked to the Southeastern European metallurgical circle, while Transdanubia was linked to the Central European metallurgical circle, thus forming an essential link between the two areas. The provenance of the raw material of the copper artefacts was investigated through lead isotope and chemical composition analyses performed on Early and Middle Copper Age copper artefacts from Transdanubia and Central Hungary. The sites were dated through the use of radiocarbon dating. The earliest evidence of local metalworking was identified in Early Copper Age material as tuyères. Artefacts typologically related to the Central European metallurgical circlespecifically, copper discs and spectacle spiral pendantswere manufactured from raw materials sourced from the Northwestern Carpathians. The slag remnants discovered within a Middle Copper Age crucible also originated from this region. During the Middle Copper Age, the use of flat axes crafted from arsenical copper emerged. In addition to the Northwestern Carpathians, the possible exploitation of ore deposits in Northeastern Hungary and the Bihor region has also been proposed.

Folklore in India has remained a source of Indigenous Knowledge. At its core, it inculcates Cultural Practices inspired from local wisdom and has contextual relevance. Many of these traditions had deep and sometimes very vital meaning in guiding day-today lives of the practitioners and also their spiritual domains. But as society evolves, science progresses, and culture morphs, many of these beliefs becomes outdated, turn eventually into superstitions. This article, "From Tradition to Superstition: A Journey Through India's Folk Tales and Beliefs," explores eleven different ideas, practices or customs based on folk traditions that once held pragmatic or symbolic value but have now been misinterpreted or reinterpreted and have turned into superstitions. The chapter explores origins, purposes, and later evolution of these folk tales. This article examines epistemological transformations that shaped indigenous knowledge. It explores the complexities of maintaining cultural wisdom in ways that do not uphold practices that are no longer rationalized or practical. This exploration provides perspective on how India's folk traditions figure into broader frameworks of cultural evolution and knowledge production.

Avestan drigu-, Sanskrit ádhrigu- (Draft)
Avestan drigu- & Sanskrit ádhrigu- are of disputed origin, often also of meaning.  Many linguists dismiss any alternatives to their beliefs without discussion, & Jamison & Brereton say that ádhrigu- is certainly solved by, “comparison with OAv. drigu- ‘poor, needy’.”  This is in line with those who define ádhrigu- as ‘not poor / rich’, ‘not weak / powerful’.  However, plenty of disputes exist, and the latest analysis by George Thompson did not reach any conclusions that would support there being a definite answer.  Avestan interpretations & glosses are often accused of being later attempts by those who did not know much about a language spoken a thousand years ago, either guesses or simply applying later uses of words to ones that once had another meaning (or several).  In this case, Av. drigu- never needs to be ‘poor’ from context, never seems like it must have been ‘poor’ in any context, and sometimes would not fit context if it were ‘poor’.  In all instances where context could be a clue, it seems to mean ‘worshiper of Ahura Mazda’ or ‘follower of Zoroastrianism’.  In later Iranian languages, derivatives like Sg. drγwšk ‘disciple / religious beggar / mendicant’ refer to a person who was both a follower of a religion and needy (that is, both in one being).  With these facts known for certain, the stages ‘follower of Zoroastrianism’ > ‘religious beggar’ > ‘poor’ make much more sense than the opposite.  This means drigu- meant exactly what it seemed to in Avestan, later it meant exactly what non-speakers of Avestan said it did.

There are other pieces of evidence that seem, at first, contradictory.  All these are elaborated by George Thompson (with no conclusions, but with helpful analysis, categorization, insights).  1st, S. ádhrigu- must be the opposite of Av. drigu-, with á- ( < PIE *n- ‘not’).  2nd, S. ádhrigu- has plural ádhrigāvas, implying segmentation á-dhri-gāv-as, which only makes sense if a compound with *gow- ‘cow’ & *o > ā in open syllables, not a u-stem with plural *-ew-es.  3rd, Av. drigu- is a normal u-stem, which is incompatible.  4th, av- ‘aid’ is often used with both words, which would not fit if ádhrigu- were ‘not poor / rich’, ‘not weak / powerful’, etc. (which to me fits with drigu- as ‘worshiper of Ahura Mazda’; if ádhrigu- were ‘(worshiper) of the Devas’ or similar, it would make sense for the faithful to ask their gods for aid).  5th, S. ádhrigu- was applied to Indra, Agni, the Maruts, the Aśvins, & Soma (but not to the (other) Adityas, Mitra, or Varuna, which implies something similar to the split between Devas & Asuras).  Certainly, something needs to go.  To me, it makes the most sense for Av. drigu- to have become a u-stem by analogy with the nom., one of very many.  This makes sense if it was a commonly used adjective, which would appear to have an anomalous paradigm after it became disassociated with ‘cow’ as its meaning changed.  There would be no reason for the opposite in S., since it is not associated with cows at all.  This means that whatever the solution was, it had to be a compound with *gow- ‘cow’ of the right meaning that could later shift in a reasonable way to another meaning that was not tied explicitly to cows.  A historical rather than semantic link, at least at the time these words were attested.

All these elements seem chaotic, but I think they can be reconciled.  Thompson points out that S. ádhrigu- is rare, but not because it was old; not based on time but geography.  It appears in NW India & eastern Iran near where Iranians lived.  Also, he notes that a drigu’s enemies include daevas, and ádhrigu is put together with deva.  “Hostility to the daēva in Avestan correlates with the term drigu, while alliance with the deva in Vedic correlates with the term ádhrigu.”  I agree with the basic principle, and take this as evidence that this opposition is rather late (after the split of many religious & cultural practices of the Indic & Iranian branches) & similar to Asura vs. Deva, a word once not tied to any human groupings or hostility.  A word originally positive or neutral later came to be positive in one branch, negative in the other, due to differing religious & cultural practices associated with it in somem way, not necessarily based on its etymology.  A word associated with one group, or a religion within one group, fits the data.

To put all this together, *dhrigow- was once used as a term for either Iranians or worshipers of Ahura Mazda (likely both).  Its original meaning has no bearing on its later attested uses, any more than Asura vs. Deva implies an original IIr. negative vs. positive, etc.  Since this fully allows *dhri-gow- to be a compound with ‘cow’, it makes sense as a term for worshipers of Ahura Mazda, *n-dhri-gow- for worshipers of the Devas, if it was used to distinguish them based on differing treatments of cows.  The simplest explanation is that *dhri-gow- did not sacrifice cows, since follower of Zarathrustra were taught to avoid it, and the sacrifices of Vedic religion were put in distateful terms.  What compound fits?  *dhri- implies *dhrey-, but no such root exists.  However, in compounds, *gow- > *gu, *dyew- > *dyu, etc.  Older compounds often have one or both elements much shorter, often losing *H in one or both, etc.  With this, it could have been obscured because it lost one or more V’s or *H.  The only choice in known words is *dhoreye- ‘support’ > S. dhāráyati ‘holds, maintains, carries, keeps’, Sdh. dhāraṇu ‘to have, keep, rear, engage (a servant)’, etc., which could form *dhri-gow- ‘keeping cattle / cowherd’.  Iranians who kept cattle, but did not sacrifice them, could describe themselves as such, and they probably called themselves cowherds, among many terms, for a long period regardless of when Zoroastrianism began or how soon they changed their lives based on its principles.  In fact, any word used by Iranians for themselves in the past could become a name for them as a people or religious group, just as in the origin of many terms throughout history.  This means S. á-dhri-gu- ‘non-ahuric / non-Iranian / of the devas’ could be formed, in the nearby area (alone?) when *dhri-gu- ‘cowherd’ was still in use.

This also would show that S. adhríj-, also of unclear meaning, was unrelated to either word.  Most S. words ending in -íj- are segmented in a way implying adhr-íj-, but I currently have no ideas on its origin.


Thompson, George (2002) Ádhrigu and drigu: On the Semantics of an Old Indo-Iranian Word

Jamison, Stephanie W. & Brereton, Joel P. (2014?) Rigveda Translation: Commentary
rigvedacommentary.alc.ucla.edu

It is argued that the painting in the Stoa Poikile described by Pausanias as an engagement between Athenians and Spartans at Argive Oenoe in fact refers to Oenoe in Attica, and depicted the arrival of the Plataean contingent prior to the battle of Marathon. The dependence of Herodotus on the paintings in the Stoa Poikile for his account of Marathon is discussed.

Are you intrigued by the ancient Middle Eastern traditions about the Giants? Then this book is for you.

Giants are often portrayed in popular culture as monstrous beings, somewhat like the Giant Orcs or Uruk-hai in J. R. R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings. But what does ancient history really tells us about the Giants?

Dragon Seed tells the story of the formation and development of the western tradition about Giants from its origins in ancient Mesopotamia to its appearance in Canaanite, Greek, biblical and Jewish traditions. What sets Dragon Seed apart from other similar works is that it is the first study of its kind to focus solely on the early tradition and not on later sources written by authors far removed from those early days.

With his concise and to the point style, ancient Middle Eastern scholar and author of several seminal works and articles, Willem McLoud, guides the reader on an epic journey through history. In these pages you will discover:

• A continuous tradition about the Giants that spread from Sumer and Akkad to Canaan, the eastern Mediterranean Region and even Europe. 
• The early conveyors of this tradition were the Hurrians, an ancient Mesopotamian people who were identified with the dragon-motif and the dragon seed.
• The prehistory of the biblical tradition about the Giants in Canaan placed in a broader context with new insights as to their origins.
• A newly introduced Hurrian-Pelasgian Hypothesis posits that some Hurrians later on migrated to the Greek world where they became known as the Pelasgians.
• New interpretations of historical events and peoples based on fresh insights especially derived from different versions of the dragon-slayer myth, contributing significantly to our knowledge of the ancient world.

This book presents a significant breakthrough in the understanding of the Giants of biblical and apocalyptic Jewish tradition.

Sanskrit púraṁdhi- is mostly seen as ‘plenty / abundance’, though some have offered other ideas.  Georges-Jean Pinault had a different translation of it as from *pr-H2andhi-, relating it to S. ándhas- ‘herb / soma plant’, G. ánthos ‘flower / bloom / peak / froth / brightness’.  This is partly due to its often unclear meaning & its unusual accentation.  If a cp. púraṁ-dhi-, why would the 1st member be in the acc.?  What would it mean, & why is it not found (in the required meaning) elsewhere?  If true, his idea would have many consequences.

A.  S. óṣadhi- ‘(medicinal) herb’, auṣadhá-m ‘drug / medicine’ seems like a cp. with oṣá- ‘burning / shining’, oṣaṇa- ‘pungent taste / sharp flavor’, oṣaṇī- ‘onion?’.  If *H2andhi- ‘herb’ really existed, this would clearly be *H1eus-H2ndhi- ‘bitter herb’ or similar.  Seeing the same 2nd member of 2 compounds, one in which it was certainly ‘herb’ or similar, supports its existence with this meaning in the other.

B.  With this, I think the use of Púraṁdhi- as a personification of soma in part of the RV (narrated by Soma) makes sense.  However, its presumed meaning as ‘plenty / abundance’ need not be abandoned when this part is discovered, since a cp. with *p(e)lH1- ‘full / many’ might mean either ‘full of plants / many plants / plenty / abundance’ or ‘(the) great plant / soma’.  In a similar way, G. Polúphēmos might have been both ‘praised by many’ & ‘very loud / roaring’ (of the Cyclops).  Pinault’s preference for *pr-H2andhi-, without *H in the 1st member, is probably unneeded if *plH1-H2andhi- > *prHHandhi- > *prHandhi-.  Old cp. with *H-H are not common, so whether the common loss of *H in cp. (PG  *thal(H)thogWi(H)wos > G. Talthúbios) was the cause or IIr. had specific *HH > *H at some stage is unclear.

C.  Why púraṁdhi- not **púrandhi-?  Ordinarily, this would show púraṁ-dhi-.  Pinault said the root was a cp. *H2an-dh-.  However, looking at the meanings of *H2andh-

Ar. andem ‘cultivate’, G. anthéō ‘blossom/bloom’, Al. ëndëm

Gl. a(n)Toš \ a(n)Tom ‘field’, S. ándhas- ‘herb / soma plant’, G. ánthos ‘flower / bloom / peak / froth / brightness’, Al. endë, Ar. (h)and ‘(corn)field’

OFr åndul, G. ánthullon \ -ís ‘Cressa cretica’

G. ándēron ‘raised bank by side of ditch’ [if << Mac. or similar]

it looks like the oldest meaning was ‘grow / raise (plants) / tend field’.  With this, it would be hard to avoid a connection to *H2aldh- (and *H2ald-?; since some G. *Cth > Cd, hard to tell) :

*H2ald-? or *H2aldh-? > G. aldaínō ‘make grow / nourish’

*H2aldh- > G. althaínō ‘*raise > *nourish > heal’, S. ardh- ‘prosper / thrive’

With this, consider n-presents.  If these were formed in 2 stages, first *-Cn- > *-nC-, then *-nCV- > *-nVC-, it allows a stage in which *H2aldh-ne- > *H2alndhe-.  If *-lnT- > *-l̃T- first, it would prevent *-nCV- > *-nVC- from operating.  Later, the C-cluster behaved differently than *-ndh- in Indic.  This works equally well if *-lnT- just became some other nasal (dental vs. alveolar or retroflex, if retroflex ḷ caused ḷṇdh > ṇdh, etc.), but I will keep this for simpicity & because I have claimed that nasal sonorants existed at least at the PIIr. stage (Whalen 2025b).

D.  In all :

*H2aldh- ‘make grow / raise / nourish’

*H2aldhne- > *H2alndhe- > *H2alndhe- > *H2al̃dhe-

*plH1-H2al̃dhi- > S. púraṁdhi- f. ‘full of plants / many plants / plenty / abundance; great plant / soma’, Av. parǝṇdi-, YAv. pārǝṇdi-

This paper introduces a novel conceptual framework termed Beeja Jyotisha-a hypothesis proposing that plants, like humans, possess a unique energetic imprint or "horoscope" determined by celestial alignments at the moment of seed germination. Rooted in Vedic astrology (Jyotisha Shastra), traditional agricultural wisdom, and emerging insights from lunar biology and plant epigenetics, this theory suggests that planetary positions and nakshatras may influence plant development, behavior, and resilience. Drawing upon ancient texts such as Vrksayurveda, mythology books (i.e. Vedas, Puranas etc) spiritual agricultural traditions, and modern ecological science, this paper lays the foundation for a transdisciplinary approach to understanding plant individuality. If substantiated through research, this hypothesis could inspire novel directions in biodynamic calendars, personalized farming strategies, and spiritually aligned regenerative agriculture, enriching the dialogue between ecology and cosmology.

Dioniso es la divinidad griega más compleja, contradictoria, poliédrica y por ello más apasionante del panteón griego. Los ritos de Dioniso permean la religiosidad griega no solo en el terreno del culto extático y femenino protagonizado por las Bacantes, sino también en el de los cultos cívicos, en los que va penetrando progresivamente a lo largo del tiempo.
El principal objetivo de este libro es contribuir a un conocimiento fundado y riguroso del dios desde dos frentes complementarios. Por un lado, se reúne en él una completísima colección de textos referidos a Dioniso, sus actividades, sus mitos o sus cultos, en la literatura griega de época arcaica y clásica, textos que son ofrecidos de forma ordenada en su lengua original acompañados de cuidadas traducciones. Anteceden y dan sentido a esta colección diversos capítulos que examinan y comentan los textos, clasificándolos dentro de los géneros literarios a los que pertenecen (épica, himnos, lírica, mitografía, historia, tragedia, comedia, filosofía, oratoria), y señalando las características comunes y diferenciales que presenta su figura en cada uno de ellos. Esta serie de perspectivas, en las que los materiales se hacen significativos, de la mano de conocidos especialistas permite acceder al apasionante universo de este dios sobre bases más completas y matizadas.

[Notes insertion from Robert Hutwohl: True alchemy is an esoteric and occult series of processes. The materialists follow the literal procedures, just as readers of the Christian Bible follow the literal. The occult processes deal with the esoteric ingredients in the human body in order to accomplish true, spiritual Alchemy, which is called The Great Work.]

Alchemy, as described in “Speculum Alchymiae,” involves transforming one metallic body into another by understanding the nature of elements and their interactions. The process requires knowledge of the four elements, their properties, and how to separate and combine them. This knowledge enables the creation of the Elixir, a medicine capable of transmuting imperfect bodies into gold and silver.

The text emphasizes the importance of knowing the correct proportions and quantities in alchemical mixtures. It highlights the significance of fortifying and multiplying the medicine’s virtue, which can convert vast amounts of melted bodies. The text concludes by emphasizing the secrecy of the art and the author’s willingness to provide further clarification.

Some oddities exist in Germanic outcomes of Proto-Indo-European *bh.  PIE *bhabho- ‘bean’ > OPr. babo, OCS bobŭ, L. faba, but Germanic *βaβno- > *bawno- > OIc baun, OE béan, E. bean.  This seems to clearly show that *bh-bh could undergo dissimilation > *bh-w.  It was probably at the stage when *bh became fricative *β, and *β-β > *β-w (or > *β-v if IE *w > *v was old).


This is also seen in compounds where both *w (or *u) can cause *bh in the second component to become *w :

*bhorno- ‘child’ > *βarna- > Go. barn
*widhu-bhorno- ‘bereft child’ > *wiðu-βarna- > *wiðu-warna- > Go. widuwairna ‘orphan’


It must be related in some way to *KW > w near P :

*gWhormo- > Gmc *γWarma- > *warma- > E. warm [gWh-m\

and similar *KW > P near P :

*wlkWo-s > Gmc *wulxWa-z > *wulfa-z > E. wolf


A similar change in alternation of T / P near P, maybe all for frictives near -m- (θ-m / f-m, ð-m / β-m, depending on timing) :

*temH2sro- ‘dark’ > OHG thinstar \ finstar \ finistir, MLG deemster, ODu thimster [caused by nearby -m-]

Sem. *bałan ‘perfume’, Arabic bašam ‘spice’, ? >> L. bisamum ‘musk’ >> OSx desemo, OHG bisam(o), MHG bisem \ tiseme \ *pisem >> OCz pižmo


In the same way, in verbs which underwent reduplication in the perfect, instead of *b-b there is *b-r in :

*bhlaH2d- > *βlōt- > Go. blótan ‘worship/honor’, OHG bluozan ‘sacrifice/offer’
*bhe’bhlH2d- > *βeβlut- > *βerlut- > *βlerut- > OHG pleruzzun

The cause could be the labial r, B (known from Fas).  Optional *β-β > *β-B > *β-r would not be odd in any newly described language, so why avoid it in a well-studied group with an ill-understood change?  Since linguists are willing to believe some *bh > w but not *bh > r, even in very similar environments, they have said this is somehow analogy with *s-s > *s-z > s-r in other perfects, which seems unlikely (especially in an old verb used in ritual, unlikely to change, especially change oddly).  This is unneeded when *b-b dissimilation is clear elsewhere.  Having 2 types of dissimilation & assimilation is matched by both b-m > d-m & th-m > *f-m.


As further proof that *β-β > *β-r was the cause of b-r, consider ON Bifröst \ Bilröst ‘the rainbow bridge of the gods’.  This is from ON bifa ‘shake / shimmer’ (OE bifian ‘tremble / shake’, PIE *bhiH- ‘tremble (in fear)’), Gmc. *βiβa-rastu- ‘shimmering course/path’.  Clearly, the cause of b \ l alternating next to r should be due to the same cause of b-r for expected *b-b, *βiβa-rastu- \ *βira-rastu- > *βila-rastu- [r-dsm.].


Together, these ideas allow another set of variants to be united.  Based on (Whalen 2024a) :

The dragon called Old Norse Fáfnir, Faroese Frænir does not have a large number of likely Indo-European cognates.  These names seem obvioulsly related, maybe < older *fāβnir \ *fārnir.  This also shows one name with umlaut, the other without.  A change of a > æ before i in the next syllable (i-umlaut) is not always applied in Germanic, but there are basic rules.  To explain this, *fāβnir might have come from Proto-Germanic *farβniyaz / *farǝβniyaz with optional rC > rǝC that prevented umlaut (seen in *drk^to- > OHG zoraht ‘bright’, Runic (Proto-)Norse *wurk- ‘work’ >> *wurxt- ‘worked / made’ > worah-t-, also similar *xlaib- ‘bread’ > -halaib-).  Optional *f-β > *f-B might match *β-β > *β-B, so *farβniyaz > *farBniyaz with *-rBn- likely to be simplified could result in *fa_Bniyaz > *fāBniyaz.


Since -nir was added to form the names of many mythical figures, this allows us to narrow down the etymology to *farβ-, which would not be common.  Since Germanic alternated f and xW (*wlkWo-s > Gmc. *wulxWa-z > *wulfa-z > E. wolf), this could be from *farβa- / *farγwa- ‘speckled’ < *pork^wó- (OHG farawa ‘color’, faro ‘colored’), related to S. pṛ́śni- ‘speckled’, Greek perknós ‘dark/blue black’, and the names of animals with speckled coloring/patterns (Greek próx ‘roe deer’, pérkē ‘perch’, OHG forhana ‘trout’, MI orc ‘salmon’, L. porcus ‘pig(let)’).  It is possible that KW & Kw underwent the same optional change.  If w-KW > w-P was rare, maybe P-Kw > P-P was even more rare.


Both the sound and the meaning suggest a relation to the IE canine called ‘spotted’ (some see it as ‘Spot’), ON Fenrir.  It has been compared to the Hell-guarding Garmr, whose IE equivalent is:

*kyerbero- ‘spotted’ > *k(^)[e\i]rbero- > G. Kérberos / Kérbelos, S. Śabala-,  śabála- \ śabara- \ śarvara- \ karvara- \ karbara- \ kirbira- \ kirmirá- ‘variegated / spotted’ (Whalen 2025b)


This is already much more variation than what would be needed to unite Fáfnir / Frænir / Fenrir.  At the stage *farBniyaz, optional metathesis > *franBiyaz.  Later, *franBiyaz > *franriyaz with r-dsm. (or a similar path).  The connection is not only that they are 2 giant and deadly beasts, but ties into the usage of many IE words for ‘snake’ and ‘beast’.  Compare (Whalen 2025a) :

S. pŕ̥dāk(h)u- ‘leopard RV / tiger / snake / adder / viper / elephant’

Ku. pǝŋgyu ‘lizard’, pǝŋga ‘spider’

S. hīra- ‘serpent / lion’

Su. piriĝ ‘lion / bull / wild bull’

*(s)n(a)H2trik- ‘water-dweller’ > OI. nathir ‘snake / leopard/panther’

*siŋg^ho- > Siŋgh ‘class of snake deities’, S. siṃhá- ‘lion’, Ar. inj ‘leopard’; *siŋg^hanī- > *simxanī- > Kashmiri sīmiñ ‘tigress’

G. kordúlos, ?Cr. kourúlos ‘water-newt’, skordúlē, Al. hardhël ‘lizard’, S. śārdūlá-s ‘tiger/leopard’, *śārdūnika- > A. šaṇḍíiruk ‘medium-sized lizard’ (Strand, Witczak 2011)

D. ḍanṭáa ‘spider’, Sh. ḍuḍū́yo, Bu. ḍunḍú ‘bee/beetle’, S. ḍunḍu- \ ḍunḍubha- \ ḍinḍibha- ‘kind of lizard’

S. vyāghrá- ‘tiger’, vyāla- ‘vicious (elephant) / beast of prey / lion / tiger / hunting leopard / snake’, ? > EAr. varg ‘lynx’, vagr ‘tiger’


An older language that had a generic word for ‘beast’ or ‘dangerous predator’ giving rise to 2 later languages each retaining the word but in a specialized meaning can result in cognates that look the same but refer to different types of animals. In the same way, even ‘creature’ to ‘snake’ is seen in S. jantú- ‘offspring/creature’, A. ǰhanduraá ‘snake’, D. ǰandoṛék ‘small snake’, ǰan, Dm. žân ‘snake’; PIE *giH2wo- ‘alive’ > Li. gyvatė ‘snake’; H. huit- ‘alive’, ON vitnir ‘wolf’.  With this in mind, a word for ‘beast’ becoming 2 divergent types of beasts in Germanic is believable.  Since ON vitnir is of this type, and seems old and obsolescent, it might have come from *witniyaz ‘living creature / beast / wolf / snake’ and been the source of confusion for Fenrir / Fáfnir.  This kind of confusion might be easiest to understand if Fáfnir was also once equivalent to the Midgard Serpent (Fenrir’s brother), who had many characteristics in common.

Fenrir being called Fenrisúlfr might support a Proto-Norse phrase *fanrís-wúlfaz ‘spotted wolf’.  The existence of Odin’s pair of wolves Geri and Freki also recalls the two watch-dogs of Yama (Śabala- and Śyāma-).  S. śyāmá-  ‘dark (blue) / black’ supports them being named for colors.  It’s likely that the original two dogs came to be merged into one in Greek Kérberos, explaining his two heads (later usually three).  Part of the reason for this could include ancient standardized iconography or carving in which two animals were represented as one, but with two heads.  Other explanations are possible, since gods and other beings of myth often merge or split as the tales were simplified or changed in various ways, and realism is not always the prime feature of myths.

In one interpretation, Śabala- represented the night, in which case the name would be related to śárvarī- / śatvarī- ‘night’ (this would make Śyāma- the dark blue of the daytime sky, and the two dogs would be a pair representing dark vs. light, as many similar pairs supposedly did in Indo-European myths).  This could mean Śabala- originally stood for ‘star-spangled night’ since it seems to be related to śarvara- ‘speckled, variegated’.  Since Kérberos and Śabala- are not related by completely regular sound changes, linguists have doubted their connection, even with the many similarities of both sound and myth.  If original r-r became either 0-r in Śabala- or r-l in Kérbelos, part of this would be explained, but a loanword is possible.

La guerre étant omniprésente dans le texte biblique, on est en droit de se demander sur quel moule est façonné le corps du guerrier. Sera-t-il bien entraîné ? Investira-t-il dans son équipement militaire ? Quelle sera la part de la guerre dans la définition de sa masculinité ? En d'autres termes, qu'est-ce que le corps guerrier dans la Bible 1 ? Une lecture attentive révèle, tout d'abord, que malgré la permanence de la guerre, le texte donne, relativement, peu d'information sur cette question. De plus, rares sont les personnages qui font de la guerre leur métier ; en conséquence, le métier de guerrier est souvent accessoire : que l'on soit fermier, agriculteur, berger, juge ou même prince et roi, quand la guerre fait irruption dans la vie quotidienne, chaque homme se doit de devenir soldat du jour au lendemain 2 . Le guerrier biblique tient donc plus du protecteur tribal que du soldat de l'Antiquité et la guerre devient un élément commun à tous les Israélites dans la formation de leur identité masculine. Ainsi, le corps guerrier biblique est également un texte social où la guerre fonctionne comme appareil identitaire. 1. Je remercie le Dr. Michael Avioz du département d'études bibliques de l'université de Bar-Ilan pour ses judicieuses remarques.

The close examination of some finds from the late antique and Christian period stored in the repository of the National Archaeological Museum of Aquileia led to the analysis of a small-sized clay slab, bearing a funerary inscription with a figurative apparatus. The interest of the artifact doesn’t lie so much in the inscribed text, as rather in the terracotta support, a typology anciently known within the funerary environment, but rarely recorded
in Aquileia and not yet studied in a systematic and comprehensive way. The analysis of the tiny slab provides the opportunity for a comparative excursus on similar objects which have been observed elsewhere in the Italian peninsula, as well as to evaluate some hypotheses on the possible original location of the artefact. Lastly, this short essay allows us to re-evaluate the occurrences of fictile epitaphs in Aquileia.

This is a kedaga (shield) symbol from Karur. The graffiti inscription reads the following: Read from right to left. The first symbol indicates the "Thunderbolt," Varuna's weapon. The second symbol indicates the karkida moth offering to Pithrus (Ancestors). The third symbol represents the shield (kedaga). This means an offering was made to Pithrus to protect them in heaven or hell, depending on their karma. At this juncture, I am compelled by instinct to recount an incident. I was working in Trichy in 2017 and went to Srirangam to perform my Pithru karma on the day of Sarvapithri Amavasya, which falls in September (the date varies every year depending on the Amavasya, the new moon Date). It was overcrowded, and I was trapped in the crowd, unable to move in any direction. I returned without offering my respects to my parents. Still, that feeling of failure is lingering within me.

Situé dans les montagnes arcadiennes et dominant l'ancienne Mégalopolis et le nord-ouest de l'Arcadie ainsi que les districts de Messénie et d'Élis, le sanctuaire est connu pour son impressionnant autel de cendres en plein air et pour les Lykaia, des jeux religieux et athlétiques organisés en l'honneur de Zeus. Le caractère panarcadien du culte et la réputation panhellénique de ces jeux se reflètent dans les monnaies trouvées sur le site, fouillé au début du XX e siècle par la Société archéologique d'Athènes et, depuis 2004, dans le cadre du projet de fouilles et de prospection du Mont Lykaion. Cette étude préliminaire est basée sur le matériel numismatique publié jusqu'à présent et sur les pièces inédites récemment mises au jour par l'équipe grecque du projet susmentionné. Son objectif est d'explorer et de discuter l'apport des trouvailles monétaires à l'étude de la vie du sanctuaire.

1. Haçlı Seferleri ve Temeller:
• Tapınak Şövalyeleri'nin kökeni, 1099’da Kudüs’ün ele geçirilmesine ve ardından 1118’de Hugues de Payens tarafından kurulan tarikatla başlar.
• Şövalyelik, kuzey Avrupa'nın pagan savaş kültürünü ehlileştirme çabası olarak Kilise tarafından desteklenmiştir.
2. Kuruluş ve Yapılanma:
• Tarikat, “Süleyman Tapınağı’nın Fakir Askerleri” adını alarak hac yollarını korumakla görevlendirildi.
• Kudüs Kralı tarafından Süleyman Tapınağı’nın kalıntıları üzerine kurulan karargah ile sembolik anlam kazandılar.
3. Gizli Yapılar ve Bağlantılar:
• Sion Birliği adıyla bilinen gizli bir örgüt tarafından yönlendirildikleri ve Johannit mezhebiyle ilişkilendirildikleri iddia edilmektedir.
• Gerçek hedeflerinin Süleyman Mabedi’ni yeniden inşa etmek ve Ahit Sandığı’nı bulmak olduğu öne sürülür.
4. Mimari Ustalık:
• Gotik mimarinin öncüsü olarak kabul edilen Tampliyeler, Chartres Katedrali gibi yapılarla sembolik ve ezoterik mesajlar barındıran mimarîler geliştirdiler.
• St. Bernard, hem ruhani hem ideolojik lider olarak tarikatın gelişimini şekillendirdi.
5. Kurallar, Yaşam ve Törenler:
• Tampliyeler, yoksulluk, itaat ve bekâret yemini etmiş, kadınlardan uzak, asket yaşam süren savaşçı-rahiplerdi.
• Törenleri gizli ve sembolikti; ahlaki kurallar sertti; mutlak itaate dayalı bir yapıya sahiptiler.
• Savaşta ölmek en büyük erdem sayılırdı, çünkü bu şekilde Tanrı için can verilmiş olunurdu

Tragedies are inherently human, stemming from human actions and affecting just them. We recognize the brain's remarkable capabilities, alongside the sense of superiority, selfishness, avarice and greed. We are the only species that can deliberately and with justification inflict pain on its own kind, premeditated and planned. We easily rationalize and justify our cruelty without regret. We are reminded of our nature by recreating real tragedies, casting ourselves as heroes, antiheroes, protagonists, and the audience.

Պատմաբան, ազգագրագետ, մշակութաբան Գոհար Վարդումյանը հայագիտության այն ներկայացուցիչներից է, որի գիտական ու մանկավարժական կենսագրությունը բազմազան է և արգասաբեր: Իր շուրջ կեսդարյա գործունեության ընթացքում զբաղվում է տարաբնույթ խնդիրների ուսումնասիրությամբ, խորանալով հատկապես հայոց և համաշխարհային քաղաքակրթական արժեքների հետազոտության մեջ:

This comprehensive study integrates archaeological, linguistic, cognitive, mythological, and sociological dimensions to address the longstanding question of Indo-European origins. It systematically employs both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, notably Bayesian probability and statistical methods including Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Chi-Square, and Likelihood Ratio tests. Further, it leverages advanced formal logical frameworks-such as Fregean semantics, Russell's theory of descriptions, Wittgenstein's language games, Peirce's semiotic triad, speech act theory, and possible worlds semantics-to rigorously interpret the symbolic and cognitive dimensions inherent in archaeological findings.

Scholars tend to take the connection between the ideology of the emperor cult and the articulation of certain Christological views in the New Testament for granted, especially if they have their eye on the Revelation of John.1 In this contribu-tion I would like to discuss one aspect of ...

Adonitology is one of the strange religions that have surfaced in the 21st century. When King Adonis I launched the religion in 2009, it made headlines for its controversial belief that women with butts are a reflection of the Holy Spirit. The launch was an instant success, and it has amassed millions of followers to date. Prof Carole Cusack, Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Sydney, shares her expert insights on the emergence of new religious movements such as Adonitology in an interview with TUKO.co.ke.

El período del final del Neolítico (Edad de Piedra Moderna) alrededor del año 6000 aC fue testigo de la llamada revolución Neolítica, que se representó en la diversidad e intensidad de la actividad humana en el Desierto Occidental junto con el comienzo de una severa etapa de cambios climáticos que condujo a la continua desertificación de la región, y la consiguiente desaparición de muchos Muchos de los animales desaparecieron o migraron debido al deterioro de la cubierta vegetal, y al advenimiento de largos períodos de severa sequía, lo que llevó a la inevitable migración de algunos grupos humanos a la región del Valle del Nilo, trayendo consigo muchos memes culturales y conceptos mitológicos y religiosos que habían grabado en las paredes de las cuevas antes de su migración, que luego formó parte importante de la creencia faraónica posterior. Estos dibujos muestran algunas conexiones especiales con conceptos mitológicos del antiguo Egipto que persistieron después de que fueron formulados en la Civilización posterior del Valle del Nilo. Las personas que emigraron y luego se establecieron en el Valle del Nilo.

“A war god in mythology associated with war, combat, or bloodshed. They occur commonly in both monotheistic and polytheistic religions. Unlike most gods and goddesses in polytheistic religions, monotheistic deities have traditionally been portrayed in their mythologies as commanding war in order to spread religion. (The intimate connection between “holy war” and the “one true god” belief of monotheism has been noted by many scholars, including Jonathan Kirsch in his book God Against The Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism and Joseph Campbell in The Masks of God, Vol. 3: Occidental Mythology.)” ref

There are a total of 204 war deities listed with 58 goddesses and 146 gods.

I am making the 58 goddesses pink to better see them among the 146 gods.

Kültür ile ilgili çalışmaların en başında ve bazen nihayetinde hep bir tanımlama yoluna girilir ve "Kültür nedir?" sorusunu, klişe olmuş cümlelerle, belli bir çerçeve içinde cevaplandırmaya yönelik eğilimler baş gösterir. Peki, çoğu okur için kültür nedir ve suni bir oluşum mudur yoksa kendiliğinden ortaya çıkan bir gelişimin sonucu mudur? Princeton'da yaptığı doktora çalışmasını kitap haline getiren William F. McCants, kitabını babasına atfederken dahi kültürün çıkış noktasının insanların yazılı ve özellikle de sözlü anlatıma dayanan geçmişine bağlı olduğunu hatırlatarak işe başlamaktadır. Bu noktada, Sosyal Bilimlere ilgi duyan ve bu bilim alanlarında çaba sarf eden herkesin kendine ait saptanmış tanımlamaları dışında, tarihsel bir bakış açısıyla, serüven tadında, değişim ve dönüşümleri anlatan bir eserle karşımıza çıkar. Kitabın başlığında yer alan "Mit" kelimesi, eserin sadece eskiçağlara ait anlatımları içerdiğini düşündürmemeli. Türkiye'de yapılan çoğu kültür çalışmalarında -Halkbilim haricinde -diğer sosyal bilimler içinde "Mit" kullanıla gelmiş bir terim değildir. Oysa ki, hayatımızla alakalı çoğu tasarrufu elinde bulunduran ve sekülerizmle hayatımızda mevcut durumları birbirine bağlı kılmadan, münferit düşünmemize yol açan "Pozitif Bilim"den önce, yüzlerce yıl boyunca, "Mit", insanoğlunun hayatının odak noktasıydı. Modernizmden önce insanlar, işitilen ve görülenlerin ötesinde bir dünyanın varlığına inanırdı ve bunları da ancak tecrübeleriyle anlatırdı 1 . Bu, basit bir tanrılar dünyasından bahsetmekten ziyade, insanlara özgü güçlü hislerle, başka bir dünyadan başka bir gözle görmek ve kadim bir felsefe ortaya çıkarmaktır 2 . Gerçekliği anlatmak günümüzde bilim ile mümkün hale getirilmeye çalışılırken geçmişte mit, gerçekliği anlatmaktan ziyade olasılıklar üzerinde durur, tutumlar ve yaşantılar ona göre ayarlanır, dünyayı farklı bir mecradan anlamaya çalışırdı. Moderniteden önce mit, zihin ve gönüllerde yer edinen, hayata ışık tutan, kısacası olmazsa olmazlardan biriydi. Bir anlamda, toplumların hayatlarını üzerine inşa ettiği değer yargıları ve inanışlarının bütünüydü. Bir adamın kurtarıcı olarak firavunun elinden köle olmaktan kurtardığı halkını, asasıyla böldüğü Kızıldeniz'den geçirmesi; koca bir imparatorluğun kurucusunun rüyasında kendisinden çıkan dallarla, köklerle koca bir ağaca dönüşmesi; sonsuz bir yaşam peşine düşen kralın en nihayetinde ölümü tatması, bizim, toplumsal hafızamızı bugüne taşırken, mit başlığı altında değerlendirdiğimiz, geçmişin değer üretmeye kaynaklık eden inanışlarıdır.

Movido por forte empenho na demanda de um conto popular, eu viria a solicitar a participação de um ancião de uma aldeia primitiva de Trás-os-Montes 1 . À entrada de sua casa, frente a uma robusta cancela, bati com o pé, como faziam os romanos. E quando caminhava sobre o movediço sobrado de carvalho que chiava à medida que avançava, de gravador em punho, pedi que me contasse um conto, daqueles que ele ouvira nos longos serões de Inverno. E aquele ancião replicou que iria contar uma história que era verdadeira, mas muito antiga. O seu nome, O Olharapo, despertou em mim uma enorme curiosidade. Emocionado, começou a narrar a história com devota seriedade em memória desses verdadeiros eventos. Contou-a toda de um só fôlego. O seu gado que habitava a corte, em baixo, seguia-o com tal silêncio como se também acreditasse que a história era verdadeira. Outros habitantes da aldeia haveriam de confirmar a veracidade da narração. "Era uma mulher que andaba grábida e depois ia a passar numa floresta e deu-lhe bontade de ter a criança e teve-a nessa floresta, mas biu que não era gente e deixou-a ficar e andou sempre. Daí nasceu-lhe um filho que tinha um olho na testa, era um monstro. Bom, acontece que aquilo criou-se lá, naquela floresta, era uma coisa desconforme, não era gente, era um monstro. Acontece que quanto apanhaba deboraba tudo: rês, gente, pipas de binho, que lebaba prà sua barraca. Bom, já se constaba nas redondezas que desaparecia tudo: fazenda 2 , bacas, … mas sem se saber o fim que lebaba tudo o que era roubado, por ser uma floresta muito cerrada. Habia um home que fazia o correio e um dia ia a atrabessar a tal floresta, mas de caminho perdeu-se. Andou, andou, andou até que, por fim, biu luzir lá munto longe -era a cabana do Olharapo. E pensou: "Deve ser de gente, deve morar lá gente." Tchegou lá e biu uma cabana de torrões, um buraco pela terra dentro, e acontece que, dentro, habia uma corte de gado e estava um carneiro a assar num espeto e uma grande fogueira de lume, e não biu mais nada. E disse: -Será bruxaria? Mas entrou dentro e sentou-se ao lume e deixou-se estar ali à espera do resultado. Quando tal, bem o Olharapo com uma pipa de binho às costas e entra pelo buraco dentro e, ao mesmo tempo que entrou, biu lá o home assustado dentro e disse: -Que rico almoço se m'arranjou sem eu pensar (risos). O home, coitadinho, ficou logo como um fajão. E o Olharapo comeu logo o carneiro com sete pães e bebeu a pipa de binho toda. Pronto. E tinha então lá dentro [o espaço] repartido: para trás era a corte das obelhas com um tranquilho 3 qualquer; e para a banda de cá tinha uma cama no tchão e tinha, então, onde ele assaba os carneiros. Bem, o Olharapo, desde que comeu o carneiro com sete pães e bebeu a pipa de binho, deitou-se à porta da cabana, trancou-a bem trancada e deitou-se à porta. Agarrou 4 e lá adormeceu. Com os roncos que daba abanaba a caserna toda. O home, coitadinho, não cerrou olho e estaba a estudar como debia fazer. E, então, do que se lhe lembrou: agarrou, meteu o espeto no lume a aquecer e, quando já estaba reluzente, bai munto debagarinho e zás!, espeta-lho no olho e tirou-lh'o olho. Ora ele trancou bem a porta, pôs um penedaço à porta e passou o resto da noite para o apanhar, mas ele metia-se pelo meio das obelhas, e ele não no bia, e se o Olharapo ia por um lado, ele escapaba-se pelo meio das obelhas pelo outro lado. Biu que não conseguia, até que

Maurice Nicoll's Psychological Commentaries on the Teaching of G.I. Gurdjieff and P.D. Ouspensky comprise the most extensive published explanations of their esoteric Christianity. Its five-volumes provide some of the clearest commentary on their worldview on record. It is read by Fourth Way adherents and non-adherents alike due to its psychological insights and inspirational tone. Although indexes were previously available for these mammoth volumes none provided in one place for each chapter and verse or category the entirety of Nicoll's commentary.

Maurice Nicoll's Psychological Commentaries on the Teaching of G.I. Gurdjieff and P.D. Ouspensky comprise the most extensive published explanations of their esoteric Christianity. Its five-volumes provide some of the clearest commentary on their worldview on record. It is read by Fourth Way adherents and non-adherents alike due to its psychological insights and inspirational tone. Although indexes were previously available for these mammoth volumes none provided in one place for each chapter and verse or category the entirety of Nicoll's commentary.

In summary, there are two key ideas here: one, the central role of the Bible in Western cultural development; and two, the rational, scientific nature of the Bible.
The primal and symbolic nature of Biblical Hebrew, based on the world’s first alphabet, contains insights into the deep and complex nature of reality. In essence, the Hebraic Bible, both Old and New Testaments, constitutes a fundamental scientific textbook of the world we live in. It holds an account of creation, its development over the eons and its further progression, in terms of the fundamental laws and principles governing the various powers, forces and energies involved. The key to understanding this ‘Science Bible’ lies in properly deciphering the letter-symbols and letter-symbol complexes.

The Book of Revelation has not only a rich theologyÑit focuses strongly on God the FatherÑand a strong Christology, but has also a lot to say about the church. John the apostle communicates a profound ecclesiology. In this essay I will examine the names of and images representing the church, as found in the Apocalypse. I will ask where in the book the church is found and what is the significance. I will examine characteristics of the ideal church and tasks for the church as well as appeals and promises to the church. In Revelation the church faces tremendous difficulties. These are internal as well as external challenges. The external difficulties include opponents and a system called Babylon, which stands in contrast to the church. GodÕs relationship to the church and his care for the remnant are important. Finally, the church is pictured as being victorious. Because she belongs to the Lamb, the Lamb will guarantee a positive outcome of her struggles. Some practical implications wi...

Vattimo resucita a Dios de su tumba dialéctica, aquella en la que había sido recluido después de la famosa sentencia &quot;Dios ha muerto&quot;. Pero el Dios que muere es un impostor: el Dios Todopoderoso y distante de la metafísica. Nuestro autor desde finales de s. XX reivindica, especialmente a través de tres obras (Creer que se cree, Después de la cristiandad y El futuro de la religión), la experiencia del amor-cáritas como límite, única posibilidad para desenmascarar y debilitar las estructuras de poder-violencia en todos los ámbitos de la vida. Así, retoma su creencia latente en Jesús, dios-amor con minúsculas, del cual anduvo alejado un tiempo, para intentar dar razones de su fe. El Papa Francisco está siendo para él un claro ejemplo de por dónde debe caminar la auténtica Iglesia de Jesús en su proyección teológico-política.

Shakespeare’s belief in the occult, evident in plays like “Macbeth,” challenges the notion that it was solely influenced by his Catholicism. While his views align with Descartes’ philosophy, which emerged after Shakespeare’s death, the author argues that Shakespeare’s occultism was not merely a reflection of his religious beliefs. The play “Macbeth,” with its reliance on the supernatural, demonstrates Shakespeare’s unique perspective on the occult, distinct from both Catholic and Protestant beliefs.

Shakespeare’s Macbeth presents the character as a victim of supernatural forces, evoking sympathy rather than condemnation. This portrayal, influenced by Elizabethan beliefs in the occult, contrasts with modern skepticism. The play’s depiction of supernatural events, such as the witches’ prophecies and Banquo’s ghost, reflects the widespread acceptance of the occult during Shakespeare’s time, a belief that has since shifted to skepticism despite unchanged evidence.

Shakespeare saw nature as a backdrop for human drama, with unseen forces controlling destiny.

There are days in every year when the Earth pauses. Not metaphorically, but astronomically. The tilt holds its breath. The light finds its balance. Or the shadows stretch to their farthest edge before beginning to return. These are not poetic moments-they are measurable, recurring events in the cosmic rhythm of our planet. The spring and autumn equinoxes. The summer and winter solstices. Four sacred days, encoded not by any one religion or civilization, but by the physics of Earth's orbit and axial tilt. For thousands of years, these days were observed not only by priests and stargazers, but by farmers, teachers, builders, parents. They marked them with feasts or fasts, fires or stillness, not because they were told to-but because they felt the shift. They lived in rhythm with it. Today, many of us have forgotten. Our calendars continue, but the rhythm has gone quiet. This paper is not an argument. It is an offering. It will not ask you to change your religion, your beliefs, or your sacred days. In fact, it invites you to embrace them more fully. We simply ask this: What if the universe itself has a rhythm? And what if living even a little more in tune with that rhythm-scientifically, biologically, spirituallycould bring greater clarity, peace, and coherence to your life? The following pages weave together astronomy, geophysics, neuroscience, ancestral wisdom, and spiritual reflection. Some of it will sound familiar. Some of it may surprise you. But it is all built on one truth: The Earth is singing.

The contribution describes and identifies the human figures in the lower band of the so-called Fish Mosaic of Praeneste. Some iconographic details allow the author to recognise the representation of Theseus and Ariadne in Crete. Theseus has just re-emerged from the sea after having visited his father Poseidon's palace in the abyss; Ariadne, characterised by the thread indispensable to the undertaking of the Labyrinth, gazes absorbedly at Theseus from a cliff jutting out into the sea. The third partially preserved figure, a fisherman, is also connected by the author to the Cretan myth of Britomartis, a nymph ‘dearest to Artemis’, who threw herself into the sea from a cliff on Mount Dicte to escape the erotic advances of King Minos, and who was hidden/saved precisely thanks to the fishermen's nets.