Case study. Community Forests - Cameroon

Verina Ingram

doi:10.13140/2.1.1111.2001

Case study. Community Forests - Cameroon

Verina Ingram

2011

https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1111.2001

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246 pages

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The paper discusses sustainable land management (SLM) practices in Sub-Saharan Africa, emphasizing the need for improved water management, soil fertility, and productivity to combat the challenges of resource degradation and poverty. It presents various SLM technologies and approaches, backed by expert input and specific case studies, aiming to provide a comprehensive guide for best practices in the region.

Figures (402)

Integrated land use system with maize-bean intercropping and grass strips for fodder production in a high potential area (Hanspeter Liniger).

Degradation of vegetation soils and water along river banks (Hanspeter Liniger).

Figure 1: The 3 dimensions of sustainability. (Source: IAASTD, 2009a). local, national and global scales.

Table 1: Land use in SSA (2000) and improved livelinoods and ecosystems.

Expansion to steep slopes, intensification and diversification all combined in the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania (Hanspeter Liniger).

Figure 3: Productive water (transpiration) and water losses (evaporation and runoff) without water conserving measures in dry lands.

Figure 4: Water productivity and cereal yield under various management and climatic conditions: for cereal yields of less than 1 t/ha four to eight times more water is used per tonne compared to yields above 3 t/ha as the proportion used for grain (cf vegetative production is much less). (Source: Rockstrém et al., 2007)

Figure 5: Water use efficiency in a semi-arid to subhumid environment compar- ing a local practice (deep tillage) with conservation agriculture comprising minimum tillage for weed control, mulching and intercropping of maize and beans. Under the local practice, total water loss was over 70%, with evapora- tion being the main contributor to this. Under mulch, the loss was reduced to 45%.The productive use of the water was doubled, and yields in some seasons even tripled (Gitonga, 2005). Local practice combining deep tillage and ridging stops runoff but increases evaporation from the bare soil surface; under the plants the protected soil remains moist (Hanspeter Liniger).

Figure 6: Water losses in irrigation systems: from source to plant illustrating the small fraction of water used productively for plant growth compared to the total water directed to irrigation systems (based on Studer, 2009). Improving water productivity in rainfed and irrigated agriculture (Principles)

Figure 7: The nutrient and carbon cycle showing the main losses and gains / replenishments of soil organic matter, biomass and nutrients.

Composting, manuring and mulching in a banana plantation, Uganda. (William Critchley)

Screening for drought tolerance of pigeon peas and lablab. (Hanspeter Liniger) There is still huge potential to increase plant productivity

Figure 8: Benefits and costs of SLM over time, short-term establishment phase and long-term maintenance phase. paybacks from SLM interventions:

High labour costs for ridging and low returns (left) compared to less demanding mulching with high benefits (right). (Hanspeter Liniger)

Figure 9: Prevention, mitigation and rehabilitation of land degradation less than half a kilometre apart. (Hanspeter Liniger) Sources: Oldeman 1994 and 1998; Versveld et al, 1998; Reich et al. 2001; FAOSTAT, 2004; FAO, 2007; SARD, 2007; WOCAT, 2008a; WB, 2010)

Any combinations of the above measures are possible, e.g.: Terrace (structural) with grass strips and trees (vegetative) and contour ridges (agronomic). The measures for prevention, mitigation and rehabilitation of land degradation and restoration of ecosystems services can be classi- fied into four categories (WOCAT, 2007):

Giraffes in the Amboseli Nationalpark, Kenya. (Hanspeter Liniger)

Afforestation around Mt. Kenya. (Hanspeter Liniger) adaptations and innovation in SLM technologies and ap-

Figure 10: Key to improved land productivity and food security.

Figure 11: Win-win-win solutions for livelihood, ecosystem and productivity.

Table 3: Strategies and practices to improve land productivity and yields

ADOPTION AND DECISION SUPPORT FOR UPSCALING BEST PRACTICES

Training of farmers in the layout of contour barriers. (Hanspeter Liniger)

Monitoring of river flow: Nanyuki River (Mount Kenya region) during the wet season (above) and during the dry season (below). The river started to dry up only as of the 1980s. (Hanspeter Liniger)

Figure 12: Monitoring of rainfall and river flow in February (dry season) document changes related to climate and impacts of land use. Timau River, Mount Kenya region (Liniger H.P., 2005)

Figure 13: Stage of intervention and related costs. the cost and associated benefits. Inputs and achievements depend very much on the stage of degradation at which SLM interventions are made. The best benefit-cost ratio will normally be achieved through measures for prevention, followed by mitigation, and then rehabilitation. In prevention, the ‘benefit’ of maintaining the high level land productivity and ecosystem services has to be measured compared to the potential loss without any intervention. While the impacts of (and measures involved in) rehabilitation efforts can be highly visible, the related achievements need to be critically considered in terms of the cost and associated benefits.

Where to intervene and where to spread already well proven SLM technologies. (Hanspeter Liniger)

Investment shifts To an incentive-oriented legislation which recognises ecological problems and opportunities, supports effective land and ecosystem management, and establishes socially acceptable mechanisms for their enforcement From inadequate laws, regulations and control mecha- nisms to implement SLM and land degradation control (Source: Elaborated by authors and based on TerrAfrica, 2009)

Knowledge management and capacity building shifts

Top: Compost pits with low containing walls, Ghana. (William Critchley) Middle: Tithonia diversifolia as green manure in a cocoyam field, Cameroon. (Fabienne Thomas) Bottom: One bottle cap of compound fertilizer for micro- dosing, Zimbabwe. (ICRISAT, Bulawayo)

Production benefits ’ application of 0.3 g fertilizer per hole; ? application of 6 g fertilizer per hole (Sources: Aune, et al., 2007; WOCAT, 2009; ICRISAT) )

—— negative; — slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive (Sources: Aune, et al., 2007; WOCAT, 2009 and IFPRI, 2010)

Enabling environment: key factors for adoption

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Sowing can alternatively be mecha- nised, which will cause establishment costs (pur- chase of the sowing machine). Weaknesses = and how to overcome Benefit-cost ratio

Remarks: The technology has a benefit-cost ratio of 10 (increased production value is 10 times higher than the costs for additional fertilizer). Compared to the 6 g microfertilization method (using bottle caps) cost-benefit ratio of 0.3 g treat- ment is 8-20 times higher.

All activities carried out manually (using cut- lasses and hoes). Cutting back is done annu- ally, harvesting and spreading 1-2 times a year.

Tithonia can also be applied as mulch 6 to 8 weeks after planting the crop. Covering the mulch with a little soil facilitates nutrient release. Tithonia green manuring - before planting - and mulching can be combined, which is espe- Cially applicable to maize, beans and cabbage cultivation. Tithonia hedgerows have to be cut back regularly; otherwise it can spread fast and become a weed. Interplanting Tithonia in the field is not recommended due to root com- petition with crops. Tithonia biomass enhances soil organic matter and soil fertility, resulting in higher crop yields. The treatment supplies the crop with nutrients at the early stage of the growing process, and thus improves the establishment of the crops through the early development of a good rooting system. The technol- ogy is especially beneficial for maize: yields in the study area increased by over 50%. At an early stage of plant growth, fresh green leaves and stems are cut, chopped and applied on the cropland as green manure after the first pass of ridging. The fresh material is spread over the half-made ridges at a rate of 2 kg per m? and then covered with about 5-10 cm of soil to finish the ridges. Sow- ing of crop seeds is done only after a week or more, because of heat genera- tion during the decomposition process of the leaves (which could damage the seeds). Tithonia diversifolia hedges grow along roadsides or farm boundaries. The green leaf biomass is very suitable as green manure for annual crops, since the plant has a high content of nitrogen and phosphorus, and decomposes quickly after application to the soil: its nutrients are released within one grow- ing season.

Remarks: Costs for planting Tithonia along farm / field boundaries and along roadsides (if not grow- ing naturally) are not known.

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Labour costs are the main factor affecting the costs. Labour inputs depend a lot on transport distance between Tithonia hedge and cropland.

Adoption Remarks: The closer to the field Tithonia is planted, the better is the benefit-cost ratio.

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Costs relate to production and appli- cation of 1 tonne of compost per ha (the product of one full compost pit). The compost is directly applied to planting pits at a rate of 7-10 t/ha (equal to actual rates applied in small irrigated gardens). If compost is produced in deep pits, production is cheaper because there is less work involved.

Remarks: Establishment costs are for two pits which are needed to manure one hectare.

Adoption Wain Contributors: vean rascal culenne Qe Fury, UCAS INEUCNalel, owllzerlana, WWW.Ceas.Ccn Key references: WOCAT. 2004. WOCAT database on SLM Technologies, www.wocat.net ™ Ouedraogo E. 1992. Influence d’un amendement de compost sur sol ferrugineux tropicat en milieu paysan. Impact sur la production de sorgho a Zabré en 1992. Mémoire de dipl6me. CEAS Neuchatel, Switzerland m Zougmore R., Bonzi M., et Zida Z. 2000. Etalonnage di unités locales de mesures pour le compostage en fosse de type unique étanche durable. Fiche technique de quantification des matériaux de compostage, 4pp

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Labour costs do not include harvest- ing (8 person-days/ha). Initially, fertilizers were partly subsidised by project, at a later stage farmers purchased more as they increased the area and became more self-reliant. Most house- holds start applying chemical fertilizer from the 2 year on (at least 1 bag). Ecological benefits

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: Initial results suggest a cost-benefit ratio of US$ 3.5 per US$ invested. Returns to labor have been about two times higher than conventional practices. Adoption

Spread of conservation agriculture in SSA. Also applied in: Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, lvory Coast, Ethio- pia, Eritrea, Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, Swa- Ziland, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe Top: Training on the use of a jab planter for direct seeding, Burkina Faso. (John Ashburner) Middle: Direct seeding with special animal traction equip- ment, Zambia. (Josef Kienzle) Bottom: A no-till seeder at work on a large-scale farm in Cameroon. (Josef Kienzle)

Production benefits (Source: Kaumbutho and Kienzle, 2007; Boahen et al., 2007; Shetto and Owenya, 2007)

Benefit-Cost ratio —— negative; — slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive (Source: WOCAT, 2009; Kaumbutho and Kienzle, 2007; Boahen et al., 2007).

Maintenance costs: On small-scale farms the labour requirements for mainte- nance are usually higher at the beginning due to the burden of weeding. Com- pared to conventional practices, the overall workload significantly decreases - by up to 50%. Agricultural input requirements are mainly cover crop seeds and (where appropriate) herbicides for controlling weeds. On large-scale farms the maintenance costs of the machines and tractor(s) significantly decrease by elimi- nating farming operations like ploughing, harrowing and by reducing weeding.

Enabling environment: key factors for adoption Example: FAO’s Emergency Programmes, Swaziland

Note: Conservation tillage is based on agro- nomic measures which are carried out repeat- edly each cropping season. All activities are listed under maintenance / recurrent activities (below). There is no establishment phase (as defined by WOCAT). Maintenance activities

bite teal Na Rane tanh) ieee aca wav Feckriccraiessa oN Re Ihr Ri carate aeons Boater Earlier crop maturity 1 means access to markets when prices are still high. There are various supportive technologies in use which can improve the effective- ness of the ripping, including (1) application of compost / manure to improve soil structure for better water storage; (2) cover crops (e.g. Mucuna pru- riens) planted at the end of the season to prevent erosion, control weeds and improve soil quality; and (3) Agroforestry (mainly Grevillea robusta planted on the field or along field boundaries). Yields from small-scale conservation tillage can be more than 60% higher than under conventional ploughing. In addition, there are savings in terms of energy used for cultivation. Crops mature sooner under conservation tillage, because they can be planted earlier (under inversion tillage the soil first has to become moist before ploughing is done). same implement is done, when necessary, to break a plough pan and reaches depths of up to 30 cm. Ripping increases water infiltration and reduces runoff. In contrast to conven- tional tillage, the soil is not inverted, thus leaving crop residues on the sur- ace. As a result, the soil is less exposed and not so vulnerable to the impact of splash and sheet erosion, and water loss through evaporation and runoff. n well-ripped fields, rainfall from storms at the onset of the growing season is stored within the rooting zone, and is therefore available to the crop dur- ing subsequent drought spells. Ripping the soil during the dry season com- bined with a mulch cover reduces germination of weeds, leaving fields ready or planting. In case of stubborn weeds, pre-emergence herbicides are used or control. Yields from small-scale conservation tillage can be more than 60% higher than

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Ecological benefits Remarks: Cost calculated charges for hiring equipment, draught animals and operator: these are all rolled up into the ‘cost of labour’ at US$ 25/ha. Conventional tillage costs US$ 37.5/ha compared with US$ 25/ha for conservation till- age operations: other costs remain more or less the same.

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: Initial investments can be high (pur- chasing of new equipment). Costs decrease in the long term and benefits increase.

Establishment activities Note: Minimum tillage and direct planting are agronomic measures which are carried out repeatedly each cropping season. All activities are listed under maintenance / recurrent activi- ties (below). There is no establishment phase (as defined by WOCAT). All activities are carried out manually (each cropping season) using jab planter (or a plant- ing stick) and knapsack sprayers.

Labour inputs for land preparation and weeding is considerably decreased under conservation agriculture. Women benefit most from the workload reduc- tion since these time-consuming activities are their task. For men, the new technology usually means heavier work, especially during the 1% year, since they have to plant through the mulch. Using a jab planter makes the work easier. The use of herbicides requires adequate knowledge. An even better option is to introduce multipurpose cover crops to control weed populations, improve soil fertility, and enhance yields while diversifying crop production and thus reducing dependence on the use of herbicides. The mulch layer has several important functions: it helps to increase and main- tain water stored in the soil, reduces soil erosion, contributes to improve soil fertility (after crop residues have decomposed in subsequent seasons) and it efficiently controls weeds by hindering their growth and preventing weeds from producing seeds. The traditional slash-and-burn land use system in the case study area — involv- ing clearing natural vegetation followed by 2-5 years of cropping — has become unsustainable as land pressure has greatly increased, shortening fallow peri- ods. Under the SLM practice of ‘minimum tillage and direct planting’, land is prepared by slashing the existing vegetation and allowing regrowth up to 30 cm height. A glyphosate-based herbicide is sprayed with a knapsack fitted with a low-volume nozzle. The residue is left on the soil surface without burn- ing. After 7-10 days, direct planting is carried out in rows through the mulch. Maize is the main crop planted under this system. Planting is practiced manu- ally using a planting stick.

Slash and burn (traditional): Maintenance inputs and costs per ha Minimum tillage and direct planting: Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per yea

Remarks: Input costs include Jab planter US$ 20; herbicides US$ 5-G/liter. A knapsack costs US$ 50, which is not affordable for small-scale farmers (they have to get organised in groups, or hire spraying gangs). Comparing to the traditional slash-and- burn system, ‘minimum tillage and direct planting’ has increased input costs but reduced labour costs, and results in higher yields, which makes the conversion profitable!

Remarks: Initial investments can be high (pur- chasing of new equipment). Costs decrease in the long term and benefits increase.

Note: The technology ‘minimum tillage and direct planting’ is compared with the traditional slash- and-burn land use system.

As a supplementary technology tree rows (e.g. pines, cypress, or eucalyptus are planted as shelterbelts and for wood production along boundaries, in val- leys or on steep slopes.

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Main factors affecting the costs are machinery, spraying and labour. It takes more than 3 years to fully establish the conservation tillage system. During the conversion phase yields might be lower, and costs are approx. 25% less. Weaknesses => and how to overcome

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: Positive pay-backs against establish- ment costs depend on the point in time of the conversion. If replacement of equipment is required anyway, conversion to conservation tillage is a profitable option, since total equip- ment costs are lower than those for conven- tional agriculture. Adoption

cstablisnment inputs and costs per farm Machinery for no-till includes: Tractor (110,000 US$), combined harvester (160,000 USS), sprayer (160,000 US$), direct seeder (110,000 US$). Life span is 10-15 years. For conversion from conventional to conservation agriculture usually only a direct seeder is needed as new equipment. Total equipment costs are less than half of the conventional tillage.

—— negative; — slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive “PD: person days. (Sources: WOCAT, 2009 and Hatibu, et al., 2004) Comment: For roof catchments and for small dams, ponds, etc. no directly related production benefits can be shown. The main benefits are related to the availability of clean and free household, as well as irrigation water.

(Sources: Projet d'‘Aménagement Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Nord Tilla béry (PASP); Projet Développement Rural Tahoua (PDRT)) ee pens ~ ie Cost of selected RWH techniques

*for RWH techniques using external runoff and storage ponds (mean return from 1998 to 2002) In Tanzania a study was conducted on the productivity of RWH techniques. The results showed that farmers using RWH for maize and paddy could increase crop yields. How- ever the yield achieved can be depressed through higher labour requirements as well as low market prices. Other factors in pro- duction, such as fertility management, are essential for higher crop yields. Micro-catch- ments led to higher benefits than the use of storage ponds and macro-catchments, even though the increase in crop yield was higher with the latter, but the return to labour for storage ponds and macro-catch- ments is lower than for micro-catchments. The study also showed that using RWH techniques like storage ponds and macro- catchments is very beneficial for the produc- tion of vegetables with returns to labour of between 10 US$ and 200 US$ per person day, whereas for maize and paddies it rarely exceeds 10 US$ per person day. One rea- son for the better return under vegetables is the higher market price (Hatibu, et al.. 2004).

Labour is valued as 1-2 US$ per person day (Source: WOCAT, 2009)

*a) Micro-catchments, b) Macro-catchments, c) Small dams / ponds, d) Roof catchments

Tassa are often combined with stone lines along the contour to enhance water infiltration, reduce soil erosion and siltation of the pits. Grass growing between the stones helps increase infiltration further and accelerates the accumulation of fertile sediment.

Remarks: Establishment costs are for 2 pits.

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Labour costs are indicated for estab- lishment of tassa only (without application of stone lines). Maintenance costs refer to remov- ing sand from the pits from the second year onwards, and to manuring every second year (costs are spread on an annual basis). If applica- ble, costs for transporting the manure need to be added. The general assumption in these calcula- tions is that adequate manure is readily available close by. Land users bear 100% of all costs.

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: Initial labour inputs pay out on the medium to long term.

If the dams are located on communal lands, their establishment requires full consultation and involvement of the local community. The government provides technical and financial assistance for design, construction and management of these infrastructures. Community contribution includes land, labour and local resources. The communhity carries out periodic maintenance of the infrastructure — including vegetation management on embankment, desilting etc. — and of the catchment areas (through soil and water conservation practices). VITA GALUT UAITIO AIG WALGT HAVOOULIY OLULAYS OLIUULUIGS, LVUITIOLIUULOU AUTUS: narrow sections of valleys, to impound runoff generated from upstream catch ment areas. Construction of the dam wall begins with excavation of a cor trench along the length of the dam wall which is filled with clay and compactec to form a central core (‘key’) that anchors the wall and prevents or minimise: seepage. The upstream and downstream embankments are built using so with a 20-30% clay content. During construction — either by human laboul animal draught or machine (bulldozer, compacter, grader etc.) — it is critical t ensure good compaction for stability of the wall. It is common to plant Kikuyt grass (Pennesetum clandestinum) to prevent erosion of the embankment. Thi dam is fenced with barbed wire to prevent livestock from eroding the wall. Typical length of the embankment is 50-100 m with water depth ranging 4-8 m An emergency spillway (vegetated or a concrete shute) is provided on either or both sides, of the wall for safe disposal of excess water above the full sup ply level. The dam water has a maximum throwback of 500 m, with a capacit ranging from 50,000 — 100,000 m°. The dams are mainly used for domesti consumption, irrigation or for watering livestock. If the dams are located on communal lands, their establishment requires fu consultation and involvement of the local community. The government provide: technical and financial assistance for design, construction and management c these infrastructures. Community contribution includes land, labour and loce resources. The community carries out periodic maintenance of the infrastructure — including vegetation management on embankment, desilting etc. — and of the

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Off-site benefits

Remarks: Establishment costs are calculated for a dam with an earthwork volume of 10’000 m® (44 m long; 8 m deep; side slopes 3:1). 20% of costs are borne by the community (in-kind con- tribution: labour and local materials such as sand, stones). Construction machinery can include: tip- per truck, bulldozer, motor scraper, compactor, tractor, grader.

Main contributors: Maimbo Malesu, ICRAF-CGIAR; Nairobi, Kenya; m.malesu@cgiar.org Key references: The Jesuit Centre for Theological Reflection. 2010. Social Conditions Programme. http://www.mywage.org/zambia/main/minimum-wage/comparitive-minimum- wage. = Nissen-Petersen E. 2006. Water from small dams. A handbook for technicians, farmers and others on site investigations, designs, cost estimations, construction and main- tenance of small earth dams m Morris P. H. 1991. Statement of Policy: Progress Review of the Drought Relief Darn Cons/ruction Project, Southern Province. Part 1 — Main Report. Irrigation and Land Husbandry Branch, Department of Agriculture, Chéma. m Sichingabula H.M. 1997. Problems of sedimentation in small dams in Zambia. Human Impact on Erosion and Sedimentation (Proceedings of the Rabat Symposium, April 1997. IAHS Publ. no. 245, 1997

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year

Remarks: Establishment costs include the con- struction of diversion ditch, construction of blocks (irrigation basins); seeds and seedlings. Mainte- nance costs include the reconstruction of blocks / seedbed preparation; seeds and_ seedlings; weeding and cultivation; irrigation; harvest. Costs have been calculated assuming that 0.5 ha of the land is planted by fruit trees and 0.5 ha planted with vegetables. Daily wage cost of hired labor to implement SLM is 0.85 US$. All costs are met by the land users themselves.

Spread of Smallholder Irrigation Management in SSA.

Mainly applied in: Burundi, Burkina Faso, Chad, Gambia, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe

Establishment costs for SIM-systems vary considerably. Drip irrigation systems carry relatively high investment costs. Some traditional systems are (or were) high in initial labour — where for example intricate networks of channels brought water down from highland streams. Maintenance of the latter has almost always been carried out with no external support. If the costs for a drip irrigation system are worked out per hectare then the prices appear high. Yet it is the low incremen- tal cost that allows land users to start on a small area (e.g. for horticultural pro- duction). The costs for small-scale drip kits have decreased dramatically which makes them now affordable for small-scale users. Even so it still requires initial investment and hence access to micro-credit: this means it is not a possibility for the poorest of land users. Land user groups provide an opportunity for joint investment in the equipment. Maintenance costs for SIM cannot be neglected: drip irrigation systems, espe- cially, need careful maintenance. However, the implementation of a drip irrigation system in place of watering with cans lessens the labour input, reduces the water used and therefore the fuel costs. An example based on drip irrigation introduced in an African Market Garden system (AMG: see case study) has shown a reduc- tion in workload from 240 man hours when irrigating with watering cans com- pared to 90 man hours with drip irrigation in the AMG system.

—— negative; — slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive; “AMG: African Market Garden system based on drip irrigation and crop species selection (Source: Mati, 20085; Woltering, et al., 2009) Comment: The figures presented above show the higher crop yield for the AMG system compared to the traditional system with watering cans. Beside the improved irrigation system the crop varieties selected also influence the yield.

AMG is promoted as a holistic management package, integrating all aspects of production, post-harvest and marketing in one system. This includes the use of improved vegetable varieties, improved crop husbandry, integrated pest management, as well as improved storage, processing and marketing of prod- ucts, and improved access to inputs.

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: Payback period is only 6 months. Net income per farmer after all deduction is about US$ 1,000 per year. The profitability of the AMG is around double that of vegetable gardens irri- gated with traditional methods. Adoption Remarks: A unit corresponds to the area irri- gated by one producer (= 500 m*). Establish- ment costs include labour inputs (2 US$ per person-day). Annual maintenance costs include labour, fuel and agricultural inputs (e.g. fertilizer, seeds; based on ICRISAT recommended rates). For a 1,000 m?-unit prices are doubled (except for tools and fence).

Maintenance inputs and costs per unit and year

QItlons - Upsiope OF GOWNSIOPe). The system is remarkably efficient in sandy or salty soils. It is adapted to small— scale farming especially for vegetable crops, rice and tree crops and is suitable for areas ranging between 0.25 - 1 ha; one riser irrigates an area of 500-1000 m?. The system as such does not require maintenance. In case of deterioration of pipes or fittings, the farmer can easily fix the problem himself or with the assistance of a local plumber. The estimated life expectancy for the Californian system is 6-10 years in West African conditions. Ideal conditions for transfer / adoption of the technology include: (1) availability of shallow aquifers, and other water sources; (2) occurrence of sandy soils and sandy clay soils; (3) clearly defined land legislation and tenure; (4) access to markets and to microfinance institutions.

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: The estimated life expectancy for the Californian system is 6-10 years in the West Afri- can conditions. Remarks: If soil is not sandy labour input for establishment increases. Hand or treadle pumps are provided by the project. Motor pumps (with pump capacity 2 HP) increase costs for estab- lishment and maintenance (fuel) but reduce labour inputs for operation.

There are two cropping seasons per year: the rainy season (June-September) with staple crops such as maize and millet; and the dry / cold season (October- February) with wheat-barley associations and cash crops such as onions, gar- lic, tomatoes and vegetables. Fruit trees covering up to a fifth of the gardens; one section of the garden is reserved for keeping small ruminants. Agricultural residues are used as fodder and manure produced by livestock ensures fertil- ity of gardens in combination with inorganic fertilizers. Traditional techniques (local plants, ash, etc.) are used for pest management. Seed production and salaction is done strictly locally.

Maintenance inputs and costs per 0.5 ha per year

Remarks: The technology serves a double pur- pose: food security and income generation.

Establishment inputs and costs per 0.5 ha

Spate irrigation has a long history in Eritrea and still forms the livelinood base for rural communities in arid lowlands of the country. It is a traditional water diversion and spreading technique under which seasonal floods of short dura- tion — springing from the rainfall-rich highlands — are diverted from ephemeral rivers (wadis) to irrigate cascades of leveled and bunded fields in the coastal plains. The diversion structures include the following elements: (1) the ‘agim’, a temporary 3-4 m high river diversion structure on the low-flow side of the wadi, made from brushwood, tree trunks, earth, stones and / or boulders, erected to divert a large part of the flow during a spate flow to adjacent agricultural fields; (2) a primary, and several secondary distribution canals; unlined, bor- dered by earthen embankments; convey and spread the floodwater to the irri- gable fields; (3) the fields, rectangular shaped, of about 1-2 ha, separated by earthen bunds. Floodwater is distributed from field to field: when a field is com- pletely flooded (to a depth of about 0.5 m), water is conveyed to the immediate downstream field by breaching one of the bunds. This process continues until all the water is used up. Arable fields need to be flooded several times. The water soaks deep into the soil profile (up to 2.4 m) and provides moisture sufficient for two or even three harvests: crop growth is entirely dependent on the residual soil moisture. The main crop grown is sorghum; maize is the next most important. Sedimentation is as important as water management: With each flood, soil is built up by depositing rich sediment on the fields. Due to the force of the floods, the diversion structures are frequently damaged and / or washed away. Reconstruction and maintenance are labour-intensive and require collective community action. Elaborate local regulations, organisation Pp ge | ae ay a eens Se ee eta peenndion encdenas ch a ame) ian

Adoption Main contributors: Abraham Mehari Haile, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands; A.MehariHaile@unesco-ihe.org Key references: Abraham Mehari H, Van Steenbergen F, Verheijen O, Van Aarst S:Spate Irrigation, Livelihood Improvement and Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change; = Mehretak Tesfai Stroosnijder L:The Eritrean spate irrigation system m= Abraham Mehari, Depeweg, H, Schultz B (2005): Hydraulic Performance Evaluation of The Wadi Laba Spate Irrigation System in Eritrea, in Irrigation and Drainage. 54: 389-406; online: Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). = Berhane Haile G, Van Steenbergen F: Agricultural Water Management in Ephemeral Rivers: Community Management in Spate Irrigation in Eritrea; in African Water Journal m Berhane Haile G: Community Spate Irrigation in Bada, Eritrea m Mehretab Tesfai, Stroosnijder L (2000): The Eritrean spate irrigation system; on-line: linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/SO3878377400001 153

Ecological conditions Establishment inputs and costs per unit

* based on expert estimation for a duration of the first 10-20 years of changed land use management

——negative,— slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive (Sources: Tenge et al., 2005 and WOCAT, 2009)

(Sources: Mwangi et al., 2001; Tenge et al., 2005; Alemayehu et al., 2006) Production benefits

*PD: Person days (labour is valued as 1-2 US$ per day), (Source: WOCAT, 2009) Establishment and Maintenance costs

Enabling environment: key factors for adoption During the colonial period in Kenya, in the 1950s, bench terracing used to be forced on local people, and after independence in 1963, many terraces were destroyed or neglected. After the soil conservation extension cam- paigns of the 1970s-1980s, bench terraces were adopted by farmers living on steep mountain slopes of Central and Eastern Provinces, especially on farms where coffee was grown (Mburat, 2006).

Aloe vera is well adapted to the local biophysical conditions and to the pre- vailing land use system: it can be used with any crop and is available to all farmers; establishment and transport is simple, its leaves are not palatable to livestock, the plant is extremely resistant to water stress and grows in any bioclimatic zone on the island. Furthermore, Aloe vera is known for its multiple uses in traditional medicine.

Remarks: Labour inputs for implementation are rewarded by project: Individuals of poor com- munities receive a salary of 3 US$ per day. Plants are collected locally. Establishment costs do not include labour-intensive construction of stone risers (Supportive measure). Maintenance costs are borne by land users. Off-site benefits +++ Recharge groundwater table / aquifer

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: Maintenance is not costly, it’s simply vegetative control and punctual replanting.

Fanya juu terraces are associated with hand construction, and are well suited to small-scale farms. Fanya juu is applicable where soils are too shallow for level bench terracing and on moderately steep slopes (e.g. < 20%), they are not suitable for stony soils. The purpose of the fanya juu is to reduce loss of soil and water, and thereby to improve conditions for plant growth. The embankment impounds runoff water, eroded soil and nutrients. As a consequence of water and tillage erosion, sedi- ment accumulates behind the bund, making it necessary to periodically build up the embankment (by throwing silted material from the trench upslope). In this way fanya juu terraces gradually develop into forward sloping terraces. Grass strips require trimming to keep them dense.

Socio-cultural benefits Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year

Remarks: These calculations are based on a 15% slope with 830 running metres of terraces per hectare with typical dimensions and spac- ing (See technical drawing).

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: As the terrace is built up gradually over the years, establishment costs can be limited. Adoption

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: The profit is very marginal but without the terraces no harvest is expected. The land users continue to invest on the terraces as long as they can make a living from the land this way.

Remarks: Duration of establishment phase is 5 years. Land users maintain the terrace at least twice a year, mainly while preparing the land for crops. Labour inputs for maintenance are usu- ally 25-30% of construction. Daily wage of hired labour is about US$ 1; material costs include collection and sizing of stones.

* for a duration of the first 20-30 years of changed land use management, depending on the selected tree species (Source: Nair et al., 2009)

Based on case studies from Ethiopia, Kenya and Togo (Source: WOCAT, 2009)

Re ACGEEIPIIG: ENICUE UOC E, INGIIY SE Within a study conducted in Kitui district, Kenya it was determined whether growing Melia volkensii trees in croplands was cost effective or not. The value of timber proad- ucts gained with that of the crop value lost due to competition over an 11-year rota- tion were compared. Costs for seed, cultiva- tion, tree planting stock or labour were not taken into account, which would increase the surplus of cash from the tree products because in recent years, crop failure has occured 50% of the time. It was shown that at the end of the rotation, the accumu- lated income from tree products exceeded the accumulated value of crop yield lost through competition by US$ 10 or 42% dur- ing average years and US$ 22 or 180% with the assumption of 50% crop failure due to drought. (In this district of Kenya, on average six of the 16 cropping seasons have failed) l\nn at al 4QQQ In \Aarnhnt at ol ONN7)

—— negative; — slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive (Source: WOCAT, 2009)

Production benefits (Source: Malawi Agroforestry Extension Project; in Woodfine, 2009)

Parts of the homegarden area are irrigated and drained by a network of over 1,000 canals and furrows tapping runoff from the montane forest. However, many systems are now in disrepair. Starting in the 1930s when coffee took more space from the food production, it became necessary to expand food production to the lowlands. Today, the Chagga highland homegarden works only in combination with a lowland field where maize, millet, beans, sunflower and groundnuts are grown to ensure food security.

Case study area: Mt. Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania Establishment inputs and costs per ha

Benefit-cost ratio Weaknesses => and how to overcome Adoption Remarks: Chagga homegardens are traditional systems which evolved over centuries through a gradual transformation of the natural forest into agroforestry gardens. Establishment of new gar- dens is not possible due to land shortage. Locally well adopted traditional land use system, covering an area of approximately 1,200 km?; further spread at local level is not possible due to land shortage. Migration of young people to urban areas leads to labour shortages and dis- rupts intergenerational knowledge transmission, required for the successful management and perpetuation of the homegardens.

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Ecological benefits

The denser the shelterbelts are, the better the windbreaking effect, but the higher the competition with crops for nutrients, light and water. Frequent pruning helps to avoid too much competition and provides fuelwood. In case leguminous tree species are used, soil properties can be improved through nitrogen fixation and the provision of organic matter (leaves).

Remarks: The monetary costs include the pur- chase of seeds, cuttings or nursery plants and labour for the preparation and planting. In certain circumstances, it is necessary to protect young trees against browsing and other damage.

Adoption Main contributors: Mawuss! Gbenoncni, Ecole superieure d Agronomie, Universite ae Lome (ESA UL), Lome, logo; gmawussi@gmall.com Key references: Care International Togo. 1997. Agroforestry training and demonstrations in northern Togo. Final report to European Union B7-5040/93/21 = Louppe, D., H. Yossi 1999. Les haies vives défensives en zones séches et subhumides d'Afrique de l’Ouest. Atelier Jachéres, Dakar. m Ariga, E. S., 1997. Availability and Role of Multipurpose Trees anc Shrubs in Sustainable Agriculture in Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 10:2/3, 25-35. m WOCAT. 2007. WOCAT database on SLM technologies. www.wocat.net

“ area the three most valuable species — as perceived by land users — are Faid- herbia albida; Piliostigma reticulatum and Guiera senegalensis. The ideal density, when grown with cereal crops, is between 50 and 100 trees per hectare. For each stump, the tallest and straightest stems are selected and side branches removed to roughly half of the stem height. Excess shoots are then removed. Regular pruning of any unwanted new stems and side branches stimulates growth rates. Farmers are encouraged to leave 5 stems / shoots per tree, cutting one stem each year and letting another grow in its place. On remov- ing a shoot, the cut leaves are left on the surface where they reduce erosion and are then eaten by termites, returning the nutrients to the soil. The remain- ing shoots continue to grow, providing a continuous supply of wood. From the first year, firewood is collected from trimmings. From the second year on, cut branches are thick enough to sell. A more intensive form of FMNR is to profit from every stump sprouting on the land. This option allows idle land to become a productive resource during an otherwise unproductive eight-month dry season. FMNR is a simple, low-cost and multi-benefit method of re-vegetation, acces- sible to all farmers, and adapted to the needs of smallholders. It reduces dependency on external inputs, is easy to practice and provides multiple ben- efits to people, livestock, crops and the environment. Tree layout will need to be carefully considered if ploughs are used for cultivation.

Remarks: Main costs are in the form of labour. One man could prepare one hectare in 1-3 days, depending on tree density (labour is undertaken by the farm owner and rarely through paid labour). No inputs used; no extra tools needed, tools are available on-farm (hoe, axe, machete etc). Maintenance costs depend on tree density also and could require 1-2 days/year/ha.

Remarks: Annual income from selling wood: US$ 140 (from the 6th year after implementa- tion). By some estimates, total benefit per hec- tare (incl. wood sales, increased crop yield, increased livestock productivity, wild foods and medicines etc.) are in the order of US$ 200/ha, compared to an investment in labour US$ 10-15.

Remarks: Data on costs is not available. How- ever, costs for management of the land use sys- tem are low; only some pruning and trimming of trees is needed which is effectively ‘harvesting’ of fodder and wood.

Remarks: Costs of establishment and mainte- nance in traditional parklands are difficult to quantify because trees usually arise through nat- ural regeneration and then are ‘nurtured’. Annual returns from the sale of neré products were esti- mated at 50-60 US$ (26% of farmers’ income) and karité / shea nut activities can represent 20-60% of women’s income in rural areas.

* for a duration of the first 10-20 years of changed land use management (Source: Woodfine, 2009)

Integrated Crop-Livestock Management in SSA.

While a 250 kg cow deposits about 1 kg of manure dry matter per night, 7 sheep or 7 goats are needed to produce this same amount. Thus, to cover 1 hectare of land with 2.5 tonnes of manure, a herd of 15 cattle would need to be corralled during 167 nights; alternatively 178 nights would be needed if 70 small ruminants were corralled. Since individual herds are often smaller than 15 cattle (or 70 small ruminants) and fields are larger than 1 hectare, it is recom- mended to organise corralling of fields within a community (village) of farmers and especially to revitalise the traditional corralling contracts (‘contrats de par- ca|aqe’) with transhtymant herders.

Establishment inputs and costs per ha Production / economic benefits

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Socio-cultural benefits * 14 minutes on 178 days in year 1; 0 days in years 2-3 Remarks: Labour costs incur in a 3-years cycle: putting and changing the poles on a specific field is done in year 1, while in years 2 and 3 the respective field is cultivated, and no corralling takes place. Actual labour input for corralling in year 1 is 4-5 days (= 10-15 minutes during approx. 170 days), equivalent to US$ 10-13; maintenance costs given in the tables above refer to the average expenses of the whole 3-years cycle.

*11 minutes on 167 days in year 1; 0 days in years 2-3 Weaknesses Adoption

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Establishment of housing infrastruc- ture is done collectively, involving dozens of community members within less than a week. Construction material is taken from the wood- lands; many parts are re-used after moving. While expenses are expressed in US$, in reality costs are in kind (mutual help) or not paid for (free lumber). Maintenance activities include: maintenance and re-building of dwellings. Costs for crop cultivation (US$ 335-535 annu- ally) are not included.

Remarks: The impact of the measure on soil productivity is increasing in the mid and long term.

In the study area, the fenced and protected communal grazing land has been divided into small plots (<0.5 ha) and distributed to individual users for cutting hay, as an incentive to stimulate proper management. The government pro- vides training, technical assistance, close follow-up, and some inputs for initial establishment. gd sree a ean Lc a a ar et ll alle th The technology involves a combination of management, agronomic and veg- etative measures: fencing to exclude open access, application of compost to improve soil fertility, planting of improved local and exotic fodder species, including multipurpose shrubs / trees (including nitrogen fixing species) leg- umes, and the local desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum). Desho has a high nutritive value and ensures regular cuts. It is planted by splits, which have high survival rates and establish better than grasses which are seeded. Other grass seeds and legumes are mixed with fodder tree seeds and then broadcast. Legumes include alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and clovers in some cases. The area is permanently closed for livestock. Fodder is cut and carried for stall-feeding and once a year, grass is cut for hay, which is stored to feed animals during the dry season. In the study area, the fenced and protected communal grazing land has been

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: Milk production compensates for some of the high investment costs (previously, production was low).

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Seedlings are given by the govern- ment for initial establishment. For further exten- sion of area and replanting, the land users set up their own nurseries. After 2-3 years mainte- nance costs decrease substantially as the grass cover closes up and maintenance activities such as replanting and compost application are reduced or cease. The local daily wage is about US$ 0.70 a day.

After decomposition the manure is removed from the pit and distributed on the fields beginning of each cropping season (March). Then straw bedding is renewed and the process starts from scratch. During the dry season from December to March smallstock is left to graze freely on the fields and pastures. The fosse is partly roofed to provide optimal micro-climatic conditions: partial shading, partial exposure to sunlight and appropriate moistening through rain- fall. Inside the pit, one or more circular terraces (0.5 m high, 0.5 m wide) serve as resting area for the animals. The terrace riser need to be plastered or rein- forced with stones, particularly in case of loose soil, to avoid damage caused by animal trampling.

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Adoption

Remarks: Main cost-relevant factor is labour. Material such as stones and straw are available on the farm (no monetary costs).

Definition: Pastoralism and rangeland management refer to extensive production of livestock using pastures and browse, and is mainly found in arid and semi-arid areas. In SSA the term ‘pastoralism‘ is usually associated with the use of common property resources subject to some group agreements rather than ‘open access’. ‘Ranching’ on the other hand implies individual, privatised land ownership. Pasto- ralism is based on open grazing lands, e.g. savannas, grasslands, prairies, steppes, and shrublands, managed through herding. Pastoralists adopt opportunistic land use strategies, that is they follow resources of grazing / browsing and water, destock in times of drought (often de facto through livestock mortality rather than stock sales) but have rapid response post-drought restocking strategies (commonly based first on the high reproduction rates amongst indigenous sheep and goats). There are many types and degrees of pastoral mobility, which vary according to environmental conditions or the given household situation. Mobility can be sea- sonal, regular between two well-defined pasture areas, or following erratic rain. It is rarely the same from one year to another. Movement is not necessarily under- taken only for resource-based reasons; it can be for trade or because of conflict. Pastoral activities have conventionally been considered uneconomic and eco- logically destructive. Current thinking increasingly recognises these strategies as economically viable, environmentally sustainable, and compatible with devel- opment. The challenge is to adapt traditional pastoralism to today’s changing environmental conditions. Establishment of feed banks, improvement of herd composition and health, a more dense distribution of wells, collection and stor- age of surface water by, for example, ‘charco dams’, adaptive grazing, land use plans, access to markets, and empowerment are such opportunities.

Main benefits: Mobile herding systems combine economic production in mar- ginalised land and environmental protection (biodiversity) of vulnerable ecosys- tems, which have been modified over time by pastoralism itself; improved food security and livelihood of marginalised and disadvantaged people. The vast areas of degraded rangeland play a vital role in sequestering carbon. Dry soils are bet- ter longer term sinks for C than soils in more humid environments. “for proper rangeland management in US$ and for a duration of the first 10-20 years of changed land use management (Schumann et al., 2002 in FAO, 2004).

Modelled distribution of livestock production systems in Eastern Africa (Source: Cecchi et al, 2010).

Top: Cattle and camels in a pastoral system, Kenya. (Wiliam Critchley) Middle: Livestock in a pastoral system, Mali. (William Critchley) Bottom: Livestock ranching close to a water point on a private estate, South Africa. (William Critchley)

* Tropical Livestock Unit, 4 hectares of rangeland per TLU (Source: Hatfield and Davies, 2006) Pastoral production provides multiple products. It tends to focus on animal prod- ucts (especially milk), rather than animals for slaughter.

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Adoption Weaknesses => and how to overcome 800,000-500,000 ha of woodland restored 1986-2001 (most of Nogjitilis are individual, but area-wise half-half), over 800 villages; 60-70% of all households have Nogitilis.

ree Once an agreement on the course of the couloir is achieved, demarcation with stones and / or boundary planting with selected tree species is carried out by the local land users - with financial and technical assistance of the govern- ment or NGOs. Common species involve: Euphorbia balsamifera, Acacia spp. (A. nilotica; A. senegal); and Faidherbia albida. Management committees at the community level draw up regulations for the management of the couloirs (maintenance and protection of vegetation). Protection of plants is achieved through dead branches (at the initial stage), daily control by forest guards, and information campaigns. The technology is a sustainable solution to the described conflicts. As a valuable by-product the trees along the demarcation lines provide wood and non-woody by-products. the use of limited lana and water resources. | nese conilicts are Oollen provoked by cattle entering cropping areas. The establishment of demarcated passageways allows the livestock to access water points and pastures without causing damage to cropland. The corri- dors are regulated through the ‘code rural’ — a national law defining the land use rights of the pastoralists. Demarcation of couloirs is based on a consen- sual decision of all concerned interest groups. Internal couloirs are negotiated in a general on-site assembly involving all stakeholders (farmers, breeders, women’s groups, local authorities). For the demarcation of external couloirs the involvement of transhumance herders and neighboring villages is indis- pensable. The ‘couloirs de passage’ are formally defined passageways which channel the movements of livestock herds in the agropastoral zones of Niger, by link- ing pastures, water points and coralling areas, be it within village areas (inter- nal couloirs) or on open land (external couloirs). The main goal of the couloirs is the prevention of conflict between agriculturalists and pastoralists regarding the use of limited land and water resources. These conflicts are often provoked by cattle entering cropping areas. ee ee Se | ees ee

Establishment activities Photo 1: Demarcation of a couloir de passage with two line of Euphorbia seedlings. (LUCOP / Abdoulaye Soumaila) Photo 2: A herd of small ruminants passing a well estab- lished couloir. (Fodé Boubacar Camara, PAFN)

Maintenance inputs and costs per km per year Remarks: The costs of the planning meeting (general assembly) and the stones for delimitation were not taken into account. Daily salary for field work is US$ 1.5. Costs for seedlings were calcu- lated for a couloir length of 1 km and a spacing of 3 m between plants (one tree line on each side). Seedling production is financed by projects, only transport costs are met by land users.

Remarks: Peace between communities is the key result in the short and long term. Ecological and economic benefits are linked to the planta- tion of trees and the improved management of natural resources.

Within this area ‘Pastoral Modernisation Zones’ have been implemented, based on a new concept of semi-pastoralism to assure the sustainability of the pastoral land use system. Several practices are promoted at field level: improved distribution of water points, establishment of water harvesting struc- tures. improved passageways for herds, imoroved fodder production, etc. Pastoralism, as practised in the case study area, is the traditional mode ot extensive livestock husbandry, based on the movement of herds between the rich pastures in the northern pastoral zones (rainy season) and the southern areas (dry season) according to seasonal availability of water and grazing land / fodder (including residual vegetation of cropland). Both forms of pastoralism —nomadism and transhumance — are facing increasing water and fodder avail- ability problems, due to a variety of reasons: change of climatic conditions, expansion of cropland, overstocking and overgrazing, amongst others. In view of these problems, the government of Niger has defined by law a pastoral zone, where crop production is limited to subsistence. DAE Re eS eS LOE eB erg eee seyienn gree YS [ey Rene Me’, fg UAE Rees emereennnel oncee kh. 2 eemerenty | tsar erent e ng 2s a eaRC Ey |) PR ACeR penny NAST) L-CACRPNZEEN [ue SCOp ODOR IOI SUCH f

Maintenance inputs and costs per well per year Remarks: A management fund is established and managed by each well committee. Well users contribute annually, or each time mainte- nance work is needed. Amounts of contribution are not fixed but up to the individual, and gener- ally proportionate to herd size. Committee can fine land users who damage the wells.

Production / economic benefits Off-site benefits

Ideal resting periods vary with growth rate, and with the rate at which the veld loses its quality with maturity. Depending on the season, the climate and the use of irrigation, resting periods vary between 14 and 70 days, and even longer in the semi-arid grasslands (90-150 days). Appropriate stocking rates are assessed through 4 rating factors (defining the veld condition): species composition, basal cover, topography and soil erodibility.

Establishment inputs and costs per 500 ha Production / economic benefits Ecological conditions

Maintenance inputs and costs per 500 ha per year

Remarks: Estimated establishment time for a 500 ha farm with 8 paddocks more or less 6 months. The establishment and maintenance costs depend on farm size and the details of the farm plan / design of the paddock system including variables such as number of pad- docks, number of stock watering points, number of boreholes, etc. Above mentioned costs are merely an indication for a typical livestock farm of 500 ha.

“for the first 20-30 years of afforestation in drylands, depending on the selected tree species (FAO, 2004 and GTZ, 2009)

Origin: Large-scale plantation of exotic tree species in Africa originated dur- ing the colonial period with foreign investments and regulated by governments. Nowadays, there is a shift from previously government controlled management towards increased involvement of the private sector and small-scale producers. Since the 1960s, the emphasis has been maintained on fast-growing species pri- marily grown for supplying industrial wood (pulp and paper industry, fuelwood). In 2000, the total plantation area in Africa was 8,036,000 ha of which 42% are com- mercial-industrial plantations. Planted forests represent, only a very small fraction of the total forest cover in SSA (between 0.3% - 2.3% of the total). Top: Watering nursery seedlings for desertification control, Senegal. (Lyes Ferouki) Middle: Eucalyptus plantation for timber and fuelwood production, Ethiopia. (Hanspeter Liniger) Bottom: Environmental protective plantations on steep slopes, Eritrea. (Mats Gurtner)

—-— negative; — slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive (Source: FAO, 2002) Comment: The figures above show the rotation length and the productivity of different commonly used tree species in planted forests.

Example: South Africa Small-scale out-grower schemes in South Africa represent an investment of more than R 50 million (US$ 7 million), which should gen- erate revenues of about R 175 million (US$ 24 million) for growers when the plantations are harvested. The small timber growers sup- plement their livelihoods with growing of food crops on the periphery of their woodlots. They make good profits and many have extended their operations from a single woodlot to three or four. Furthermore, the local community benefits from increased participation in the monetary market and from job opportunities created by the contracting by the companies of support services for planting, maintenance, harvesting and transportation. Small growers and rural communities also benefit from train- ing programmes offered by the forest com- panies (Chamshama and Nwonwu, 2004). Comment: It is very difficult to provide figures to the costs of planted forests. There are large differences by the type of planted forests, by initial conditions and by country.

The big challenge is to gradually replace the stands of Casuarina trees that have reached senescence (after approx. 30 years). A management plan has been developed to assure the continuity of this important protective system. UT re til | ee yve'! CAADIA UTC MO VITAYGeo Cb PivVYyYyvll! 1Tabnoado. The establishment of the tree belt started in the 1970s and continued until the late 1990s. The exotic nitrogen-fixing Casuarina equisetifolia was found to per fectly fit into the harsh ecological environment with its poor sandy soils, stron, winds, shifting sand and proximity to the sea. Seedlings were raised in nurser ies, then planted on a 2.5 x 2.5 m grid — protected by palisades and irrigatec at the initial stage. The filao belt covers an area of about 9,700 ha and effec tively halts wind erosion and movement of sand dunes, resulting in multiple positive impacts on the environment and the 120,000 people living in the area it provides protection of villages, allowing vegetable production in inter-dune depressions, and last but not least - builds up resources of wood. Without the tree belt, life in the Niayes would not be possible. Furthermore, wind speec was reduced also on the sea side, making inshore fishery possible during the whole year (before it was limited to 3 months).

Production / economic benefits Establishment inputs and costs per ha

Remarks: Land users emphasise that without the technology they would not be able to live in this area.

Remarks: Costs for establishment are high. All inputs were fully subsidised. Implementing agency was governmental ‘Service des Eaux et Foréts’ with funding from ACDI and USAID. Reestablishment starts after 25-30 years when trees reach senescence. Off-site benefits

Remarks: Labour costs include construction of hillside terrace, pitting, planting and spot weed- ing and cultivation. According to the work and payment norms of the Ministry of Agriculture the cost of 1 person-day is US$ 2.66. Produc- tion cost of one seedling is US$ 0.2. Mainte- nance costs include terrace maintenance, re-pitting and replanting of seedlings. Costs are calculated for gentle slopes with terraces spaced al 225 i

Remarks: Initial labour inputs payout on the long term.

The increasing speed at which desertification is progressing in Sahelian coun- tries makes this technology one of the main instruments for combating the impacts of climate change. Land that has been sown with grass needs to be enclosed in the early years to avoid interference by animals. AVVISY VIIA VOLy laAbyorovaiG II UNG INIYOr TIVE! Udolll. Palisades are made either of millet stalks, or doum or date palm fronds, according to availability in the region. They are established in a perpendicular direction to the wind, at a spacing of 10 —- 20 meters depending on severity of sand encroachment and level of land degradation. The closer the spacing, the more effective is the protection. Tree seedlings or cuttings are planted on a 5m x 5m grid, with a density of 400 trees per hectare. Species include Euphorbia balsamifera, Prosopis chilensis, Ziziphus mauritiana, Acacia sen- egal and Bauhina rufescens. Grass seeds are broadcasted. The increasing speed at which desertification is progressing in Sahelian coun- Doma women bbctem dea baeclimemes Skee ck hin: care ptmdbise caw ew ce orca bec ee oe

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: Figures are based on estimates. Costs for seedlings / cuttings are indicated for Euphorbia balsamifera. For other tree species costs need to be doubled or tripled (higher pro- duction costs at the nursery).

Remarks: The technology is efficient in the mid to long term when it supports natural regenera- tion of ecosystems. In the Niger River basin, however, the benefits are lower.

Spread of dry forests in SSA. (Source: CIFOR, 2006)

References and | supporting information:

Property rights for the protected area are clearly established through a con- tractual agreement that includes / respects traditional and government land rights. The local land users select the area, provide all labour inputs and ensure the long term management of the sites according to mutually agreed goals. Training is provided to enhance income generating activities — ranging from beekeeping and the production of high-value vegetable crops to the process- ing of non-timber forestry products — and to promote the use of fuel-efficient cooking stoves. Management activities in the protected area includes (1) seeding / planting of improved fodder species; and (2) establishing stone lines and half-moons (demi-lunes) for soil erosion control and water harvesting, (8) installing bee- hives for honey production; and (4) fodder production: the grass is cut, tied and carried to feed livestock outside the regeneration area.

Maintenance inputs and costs for 3 ha per year Remarks: A unit relates to a protected area of 3 hectares (average size; feasible and beneficial for participating land users, namely farm fami- lies / womens’ groups). Labour for establish- ment includes: digging of planting pits / ditches, post installation, fabrication of chain-link fence materials, all plantations, stone lines, half- moons, etc. Components for fence construc- tion are locally available. Weaknesses => and how to overcome

Benefit-cost ratio Adoption Main contributors: Franziska Kaguembéga-Miuller, Coordinatrice ONG newTree, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; kaguembega@newtree.org; www.newtree.org Key references: Diatta, M; Albergel, J.; Perez, P.; Faye, E.; Séne, M. et Grouzis, M. 2000. Efficacité de la mise en défens testée dans |’'aménagement d’un petit bassin versant de Thysse Kaymor (Sénégal). 15 p. = Guinko S., 1984. Végétation de Haute Volta, Volume |. Thése de Doctorat : Université de Bordeaux Ill (France). Tome, 394p.

Establishment activities The management of the tapia woodlands has evolved over centuries and in recent times has been supported by state imposed regulations. Thus no establishment activities can be listed here.

Maintenance inputs and costs per ha per year Remarks: The estimation of costs is difficult - fruit are gathered over a two month period by school children going out for an hour in the early morning each day; the silkworms are collected by individuals (usually experienced collectors) on free days. In some areas, projects exist that run silkworm nurseries, establish firebreaks in the woodlands, grow and plant tapia seedlings, and finance the purchase of silk looms. These projects obviously require much larger budgets.

Benefit-cost ratio Remarks: The larger rainy season silk harvest provides crucial cash income during the meagre months before the rice harvest. In 1998, the price of 200 cocoons was between US$ 0.10- 0.15. For a basket of tapia fruits villagers earned between 0.02-0.06 US$/kg. During the harvest the tapia woodlands produce about 4 kg of fruits per ha (= US$ 0.1-0.25/ha). Dependence upon woodlands for cash income varies from 0-40%.

Area of rainforests in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainable rainforest management mainly in: Forest management plans are in effect in Cameroon, Congo, Gabon and CAR. Cameroon and CAR have more than 75% of the concession with agreed management plans, whereas the larger DRC has none. In Central Africa, the forest area certified by the Forest Stew- ardship Council (FSC) was about 4.7 million ha in 2009: Cameroon (0.9 million ha), Congo (1.9 million ha) and Gabon (1.9 million ha). Cameroon, CAR and EG have more than 20% of their land under protection, whereas in Congo, DRC and Gabon the protected area ranges between 9-11% of the total land area.

Origin: Prior to the colonial era, the sacred character of forests helped to conserve them as part of traditional community resource management systems. After the 1992 Earth Summit, Central African countries adopted laws and regulations includ- ing sustainable management plans, community involvement and conservation objectives. However, the execution of these regulations is not sufficiently successful. Spread of rainforests: 180 million ha are covered by rainforests (out of 582 million ha of forests). They are mainly found within the Central African Republic (CAR), the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Equatorial Guinea (EG), Gabon and the Republic of Congo. Rainforests are also found in Cameroon, the high mountain areas of Ethiopia, Kenya, West Africa (e.g. Benin, Ghana, Guinea Bis- sau, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Togo) and in costal zones in South Africa, Madagascar, etc. wm... gt Lk. 8 eg me at a te

(Source: Ingram Verina, see case study on Community Forestry) Since Sustainable Rainforest Management (SRFM) is mainly a political and man- agement issue, the assessment of costs is limited and depends closely on the specific technical and political aspects implemented. Community forestry in Cameroon includes very high establishment costs includ- ing marking the boundaries and agreeing on forest use zones, inventory of forest resources, management plans, etc. However, once established the operation of the system is at a low price. Establishment and maintenance costs Economics

Case study area: Mount Oku region, North- west Cameroon Establishment inputs and costs per beehive

Maintenance inputs and costs per beehive per year Remarks: Labour costs depend on number of hives and distance from household. Costs vary with pro- duction level and availability of equipment (knife, mesh filter, buckets). Harvest equipment can be basic and includes smokers (bunch of grass / metal smoker) and bee suits (also made locally).

Remarks: For a start up, 5 beehives are needed. Labour includes collection / purchase of materi- als. Hives can be made from local materials (e.g. raffia palm, mud, rattan, lianas, grasses, wood, or sawn planks for top bar hives) and by using availa- ble tools (machete, axe, knife; lifespan 2-5 years).

Remarks: Initial investment in hives often recouped in 2-5 years, depending on level of production.

Budget: Large. set- up costs: average 2,600- 32,000 US$/ha (max. 59’000 US$) over 2-4 years; operating costs: average 2,000 US$/ha/ year over the 25 year period of a CF.

Approach costs were met by the following contributors / donors: Benefits of SLM Approach

Subsidies financed under the approach: Access to credits

cxample: Green Water Credits Green Water Credits (GWC) attempts to bridge the incentive yap between upstream and downstream water users. The project implements a regular compensation system by water users to water providers for specified water management services (e.g. for hydropower and irrigation) (Source: ISRIC, 2010).

Elephants crossing the Samburu river in Kenya. (Hanspeter Liniger)

Gas collection tank resting on the concrete-built digester. Pipes / tubes at the top of the gas tank supply the house with methane gas, Botswana. (Reuben Sebego)

Top: Rooibos tea bushes in Western Cape, South Africa — anc the product marketed in Europe. (William Critchley) Bottom: Development agencies are promoting export of organic products from Africa. By now more than 50,000 certified organic growers in Uganda. (William Critchley)

Diverse herbaceonsplants, bushes and trees turing the gullies into productive land. (Hanspeter Liniger) Ziziphus fruit in Africa wild (top) grafted (bottom); the grafted ‘Pomme du Sahel’ (Ziziphus sp.) is proving very popular and commands a good market both for fruit and graftlings. (William Critchley)

By relying on inputs available / produced on the farm and by getting a better price for certified organic products, profitability of the farm is improved in the long run despite of lower productivity compared to conventional or genetically modified (GM) cotton. Farms need to complete a 3-year conversion period to change their production system from conventional to organic. Farmers have to maintain records and documents for periodic inspection and certification (lnter- nal control system).

Push-pull simultaneously improves cereal productivity; enables production of year-round quality fodder - thereby allowing for integration with livestock hus- bandry; diversifies income streams and enables smallholders to enter into the cash economy. It also improves soil fertility; protects fragile soils from ero- sion and enables a minimum tillage system. The technology is appropriate to resource-poor smallholder farmers as it is based on locally available plants, affordable external inputs, and fits well with traditional mixed cropping systems nracticand in CCA The stemborer moths are attracted to volatile compounds emitted by the napier grass which at the same time serves as a haven for the borers’ natural enemies. When moths lay eggs on napier grass a sticky substance secreted by the grass physically traps the moths’ larvae. Napier is also an important car- bohydrate-rich fodder grass. Desmodium, a perennial cover crop, produces repellent volatile chemicals that push away the moths, and the plant effectively suppresses striga weeds through its root exudates. Furthermore, desmodium ixes nitrogen, conserves soil moisture, enhances arthropod abundance and diversity and improves soil organic matter, thereby making cereal cropping systems more resilient and adaptable to climate change. Being a low-growing plant it does not interfere with the crops’ growth.

Maintenance inputs and costs per plot per year SE ena tractus era SAN MSS Soa oat | een rc aermarnee Sram ina renct Sth vere PT reese PSS st een culations above = 0.25 ha. Input prices (in US$): 1 person-day = 1.2 US$; 1 napier root split / cane = 0.14 US$.; 1 kg desmodium seeds = 18.9 US$.; 1 kg super- phosphate fertilizer = 0.68US$.

Adoption The technology is based on low external inputs and is adapted to the traditional mixed cropping systems in Africa. To date it has been adopted by over 29,000 smallholder farmers in East Africa, mostly without incentives. Where the technology is being introduced for the first time, farmers only need demonstration and technology information.

Remarks: The PES system pays for delivering of watershed services which is freshwater (quan- tity and quality). Payments are made first as compensation to establish land use changes, later for service delivery. EPWS Tanzania is cur- rently facilitating payments for establishment and maintenance of the land use change.

Approach costs were met by the following con- tributors / donors: “buyers’ are downstream beneficiaries who pay or provide rewards for managers of the watershed upstream (=‘sellers’)

Photo 1: Giraffes around the village of Kouré. (Ahmed Oumarou and ECOPAS*) * ECOsystémes Pro: tégés en Afrique Sahélienne

An Intermediate Technology Development Group project is located in southern Zim- babwe, where drought occurs in three out of every five years. The approach combines low-cost technologies (water harvesting and subsurface irrigation) with building farmers’ capacities to participate in research, exten- sion and within group structures. The ben- efits of the project, beside doubling the yield, include farmers having acquired new skills for food production; local institutions having been strengthened in tackling their own problems; training has increased confidence among local people, particularly poorest groups; there is increased involvement of women in com- munity decision-making; there is also greater capacity amongst farmers to articulate their needs to service providers, and research and extension systems have become more responsive to farmers’ needs (Pretty, 2007).

Savings and loans: micro-finance in Burkina Faso. (Willian Critchley) The Agroforestry Extension project (WAFE) works with some 20,000 farmers on 4,200 hectares to encourage the adoption of vari- ous agroforestry practices within farms (e.g. undersowing of pigeon pea and ses- bania in maize for soil fertility improvement). The project uses participatory approaches. Farmers are formed into farmer associations, trained as trainers and can ask for specific services from government and non-govern- mental organisations. As a result, maize yields have improved from 700 kg/ha to 1,500-2000 kg/ha, farmers have become less depend- ent on fertilizers and more households have become both food and woodfuel secure. Some 6.98 million trees were planted in 1999 by 1,155,900 households, and the project expects to see reduced pressure on natu- ral forests as these mature (Pretty, 2007).

ee a Top: Participants of a training workshop in Mali playing the LforS simulation game ‘Sustainable household strategies and community development’. (Ernst Gabathuler) Middle 1: Learning for Sustainability workshop in a shifting cultivation, Madagascar. (Andreas Klay) Middle 2: Farmer Field School on fertilizer micro-dosing in upper east Ghana. (William Critchley) Bottom: A Farmer Field School group in Bassodawish, Tanza- nia reflecting on Conservation Agriculture. (Photo CPAR)

Participatory rural appraisal: sharing experiences between Ethiopia, Ghana and Uganda. (William Critchley)

the communities. The main operational unit of the approach is the so-called SLG (structures locales de gestion), a committee at community level, which is responsible for resource management, execution of development activities, monitoring and evaluation and sustainability of investments. Setting-up these organisational structures, as well as training and capacity building of its members is carried out by the project. Once the SLGs are established, planning of development activities and elaboration of forest management plans (PAF) and village forest management plans (PVAF) is done. Then, concrete activities are implemented: establishment of rural wood markets; commercialisation of wood and forest products; establishment of village development funds; implementation of SLM activities. Local people implement project activities at field level. The SLGs are the institutional beneficiaries of the approach, they participate in the manage- ment of generated income (e.g. taxes on products sold) and in turn support the mobilisation of local communities. The project provides technical and financial support (for village development funds earmarked for infrastructure projects). A Committee for Science and Technology (CST) with experts from CIRAD France and University of Niamey supervised programme implementation.

Strengths Remarks: Labour for SLM technologies is an in-kind contribution from the local people. But labour of development activities was paid by the project. Agricultural inputs: seeds, seedlings, imported fertilizers were paid by the project. Seeds collected in the forest and organic fertiliz- ers were supplied by the beneficiaries. Subsidies financed under the approach:

Approach costs were met by the following contributors / donors:

PFI is a potentially important direction for research and extension in SSA. Its principles have been taken up by, amongst others, the UNEP-GEF funded ‘Stimulating Community Initiatives in Sustainable Land Management’ project.

tnelr relations ana continue stuay or action projects, Inciudging Fro on otner subjects, after the FFS learning cycle is completed. The Farmer Field Schools on Integrated Land and Water Management (ILWM) in eastern and central Kenya focus on learning about how to improve manage- ment of land and water resources both on individual plot and farm level and within ‘landscapes’ and communal lands; including local watersheds, river- valleys, forested hill-tops, grazing lands, eroded gullies etc. Each FFS group experiments practically on selected SLM practices / measures. All learning takes place in the field and farmers usually meet once per week at a selected host farm in their locality to monitor their field experiments and to discuss emerging issues. Trained facilitators, usually agricultural advisors, guide farm- ers in their observation and analysis of what is taking place in the field. Local armer innovations are identified to feed indigenous knowledge into the FFS process: Innovators visit FFS groups or FFS members visit innovators farms to share their knowledge. The FFS process combined with the promotion of armer innovation has proven to contribute to strong and cohesive groups that are able to make informed decisions and change cultural and practical behav- iour in order to improve their production and land management. The process also builds self-confidence, and empowers especially women to take on lead- ership roles in the community. The impacts observed of FFS thus have strong biophysical and social dimensions.

Remarks: Community contributions included provision of land, manure, fencing materials, tools etc. and weekly contributions to the group savings account. Organisation / capacity development

Strengths Remarks: Funding for group level learning; mate- rials and farm inputs were given directly to the group as a grant for them to manage. Subsidies financed under the approach:

Case study area: pilot area covering four communities: Barre and Narquia in the Zecco and Ziou Departements, Nahouri Province, Burkina Faso; and Namoo and Feo, Bongo district in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Approach costs were met by the following contributors / donors:

Subsidies financed under the approach: VUDSIMICS HIIGhOCU UNOS! UIG AYUVUIOdUT I. No subsidies were given. Labour was not rewarded and inputs were not financed by the project. Benefits of SLM Approach

OF JUSUTICAUON, are UIE stall ulG POW WI) all TMOQUICS. In a learning-by-doing approach farmers are encouraged to try out any nev ideas identified during PLAR sessions on some parts of their fields reservec for new practices (‘innovation space’). This allows them to assess the impac of such innovations on their rice yield, or on the profitability of rice growin¢ and the rice business as a whole, and consequently to adapt and fine-tune the measures taken according to their needs. These innovation spaces are regularly visited as part of learning sessions for knowledge sharing betweer armers. Since 2005, innovations in land preparation, early transplanting o seedlings, weeds and water management - basically without external inputs - have resulted in three times higher yields, benefitting thousands of farmers Rice value chain activities started in 2008 with a view to empowering farm: ers’ position within the chains and improving the competitiveness. Groups are unifying into PLAR centres with common marketing of rice, and contract inpu oroviders and rice processors.

Case study area: Sofia Region, Madagascar; about 10,000 km? covered by approach. Benefits of SLM Approach Training and awareness raising

Approach costs were met by the following contributors / donors: Subsidies financed under the approach: Strengths

Remarks: Two sarcleuses (weeding equipment) per starting group are provided for free and remain property of the group.

Remarks: Incentives (other than education and motivation) have been used at very low levels. Common Interest Groups (CIGs) were then required to solicit help and assistance as need arises. Subsidies financed under the approach:

-- negative; - slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive; na: not applicable Annex table 1: development issues addressed

—— negative; — slightly negative; — /+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive Annex table 2: Benefit-cost ratio

-- negative; - slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive na: not applicable

-- negative; - slightly negative; -/+ neutral; + slightly positive; ++ positive; +++ very positive na: not applicable Annex table 4: Key factors for adoption

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