Catholic Theology

This article outlines the relationship between Aquinas's thought and priestly formation, beginning in the thirteenth century and ending with the twentieth-century Magisterium. In relation to the other articles in this special issue, this article is meant to serve as a kind of introduction, providing important historical context for those more specialized treatments of the relevance of Aquinas's thought for different aspects of priestly formation today. Beginning with his personal formation for the priesthood, this article examines Aquinas's role in the formation of priests during his own life, and then the subsequent role of Aquinas's thought in priestly formation before the Council of Trent, and during the post-Tridentine period until the twentieth century.

is essay was rst delivered as a lecture at Blackfriars Hall, Oxford on February 1, 2023, as part of the Aquinas Lectures series, held during Hilary Term (2023): "Aquinas and the Future of Christian ought." I am grateful to Fr. Oliver Keenan, O.P., and the Aquinas Institute for their kind invitation to participate in this lecture series, and to the community at Blackfriars Hall for their generous welcome.

Il 15 se�embre 1993 inizia una storia. Il mar�rio di p. Puglisi riempie della sua eco le strade del mondo: dal quar�ere di Brancaccio e dalla ci�à di Palermo si diffonde per il mondo intero. Come mai? Un prete poco noto dai media, ma ama�ssimo da chi lo conosceva, parla a tu�, e lo fa a par�re dal sorriso con cui si rivolse ai suoi assassini. Nel corso del seminario di studi che si è svolto presso la Pon�ficia Facoltà Teologica di Sicilia "San Giovanni Evangelista", sita in Palermo, nella ricorrenza del trentennale del mar�rio (1993-2023) e con l'apporto di una molteplicità di voci, si è guardato a p. Puglisi da vari pun� di vista, cercando di arrivare al fondamento del suo essere e del suo agire nei vari contes� in cui ha operato. Ebbene, p. Puglisi era un credente profondamente innamorato di Cristo, un prete a�ento a ciascuno e impegnato a tempo pieno per far conoscere l'amore del Padre per i suoi figli. Quanto ha fa�o è stato eccezionale nella sua ordinarietà: è stato educatore, docente di religione, parroco, animatore della pastorale vocazionale e padre spirituale in seminario. Ogni cosa l'ha fa�a bene, perché le mo�vazioni di fondo e le sue speranze erano poste in alto: il 15 se�embre 1993 ha compiuto la sua corsa e ha toccato il cuore di persone avvezze al male, e lo ha fa�o con un sorriso. Il suo sorriso incoraggia a fare sempre scelte giuste e coeren�, guardando al bene di ciascuno e della ci�à degli uomini.

Blessed Francesco Paleari united deep spirituality and active charity, embodying synodal values through spiritual fatherhood, relational care, and service rooted in love, sacrifice, and communion with God. In this paper I explore synodal approach in spiritual accompaniment.

The legislator has not provided either a disqualifying or an invalidating
clause in c. 874 CIC. This fact does not substantiate the conclusion, however, that an infringement of the norm laid down in c. 874 §1 n. 3 CIC – when admitting a person to the function of sponsor – results only in illicit acceptance of this office. An analysis of the teaching of the Church on the effects of the sacraments of Christian initiation and their relationship with the purpose for which the institution of sponsor exists in the Church proves that the provisions of c. 874 §1 n. 3 CIC stem from the doctrine of the Church on the sacraments of baptism, confirmation, and the Eucharist. Even though it is of ecclesiastical provenience, the ratio legis of its existence is founded on God’s law which makes it mandatory to provide for the Catholic upbringing of the person being baptized, and for the unity of faith and community of the Church.
Taking into account the purpose of c. 874 §1 n. 3 CIC and the nature of the
office of sponsor, it seems reasonable to propose a thesis that the admission of a non-Catholic who is not in a close communion with the Catholic Church to the munus of sponsor may result in the office being taken on invalidly. In such case, the person who is unable to fulfill the tasks inherent to the office they undertake may become a godfather or a godmother invalidly. The case is similar with regard to the requirement of having been confirmed and received the Eucharist, and leading a life of faith in keeping with the function of sponsor. These criteria are also closely linked to the purposes for the fulfilment of which the munus of sponsor exists in the Catholic Church. Unless they are satisfied, the fulfilment of duties taken on together with the office seems hindered, if not impossible. The sponsor may encounter insurmountable obstacles in accompanying their godchild on the road of Christian life. The admission of a person who does not follow the rules of faith to the office of sponsor may also entail the risk that the person who is entrusted into their
spiritual care may lose faith, which would undermine the very purpose for
which this munus exists in the Catholic Church. Furthermore, it would contradict
God’s law which makes it mandatory to avoid any risks to faith.
A failure to satisfy the criteria laid down in c. 874 §1 n. 3 CIC results in
the invalidity of admitting a baptized person to the function of sponsor only
indirectly, when the candidate sponsor is unable to fulfill the duties taken on
together with the office, and if such inability is permanent. This truth is confirmed
in the fundamental legal principle which says: Impossibilum nulla obligatio
est. Since obligations assumed by the sponsor are inherently linked to
the office they are taking on, inability to fulfill these obligations results in an
invalid assumption of the function of sponsor. Consequently, the effects of
non-compliance with each of the requirements laid down in the above canon differ depending on the degree of the candidate sponsor’s communion with the Catholic Church and on whether he or she will be able to fulfill the duties inherent to the nature of this office. The criterion of being in the community of the Catholic Church is indirectly related to the requirement of being baptized. Unless the candidate sponsor has been baptized, they cannot validly undertake the function. This inability is related to the lack of canonical personality of an unbaptized person in the Catholic Church, and to the purposes for which the munus of sponsor exists.

Més enllà d’una proposta filosòfica, Re-fundar el cosmopolitisme és un veritable manifest (re)fundacional. En aquest breu però fecund assaig, Yves Charles Zarka situa l’estatut de l’ésser humà (del conjunt de la humanitat) en la seva relació amb el món vivent (la Terra i el conjunt d’éssers que l’habiten), com a nucli central d’un cosmopolitisme que ha de ser capaç de respondre i de correspondre a les proble-màtiques de la mundialització contempo-rània; a saber: les crisis migratòries, el terrorisme internacional, la contaminació i el canvi climàtic, entre d’altres. El que tenen en comú aquestes qüestions és la seva dimensió global, atès que ultrapassen les fronteres políticament establertes, al-hora que de totes se’n deriva una amena-ça real cap a l’existència humana present i futura, en tant que humanitat i, nogens-menys, en tant que éssers vivents de la Terra. És a dir, les conseqüències de l’ac-ció de les persones sobre el medi natural no són alienes a la humanitat mateixa.

In our understanding of the Eucharist could we be suffering from a kind of 'chinese-wispers'? Have we lost the original reason why Jesus said 'Do This' and are we  focusing only on the need to provide Communion? Are we then in danger of separating the receiving of Communion from the sacrifice of the Lamb of God that we invoke and make visible in the Liturgy of the Eucharist?

My hope in this paper is to challenge some of our preconceived thinking as Catholics and not take the easy option regarding the very real shortage of priests by providing Services of Word and Communion.

The genesis and growth of the epiclesis continues to be a perennial subject for liturgical debate and in part this is because although we have plenty of evidence for its forms from the late fourth century onwards, there is very little material prior to that, and what does exist is capable of a variety of interpretations. A recent article by Nathan Chase has given an excellent overview of the more recent studies that have been instrumental in helping to make conjectures on how this liturgical unit might have developed from the invocation maranatha through to a petition for the Lord/Son/Power to come, and then to morph to a request for the Father to send the Holy Spirit1. Chase has summarized the works of Robert Taft, Gabriele Winkler and Sebastian Brock, as well as Susan Meyers, Mary Farag, Maxwell Johnson, and the present writer, and he has put forward a cogent argument for a development that includes the Logos epiclesis of Sarapion. Although Chase’s argument is certainly one possible scenario, it is not the only interpretation of the evidence.

ALETHEIA Lettre d'informations religieuses "La vérité vous rendra libres" (Jean 8, 32) XXVI e année n° 354 10 mai 2025 Cette lettre mensuelle d'informations, publiée depuis juillet 2000, paraît douze fois par an et contient des nouvelles, des analyses et des commentaires qui ne trouveraient pas forcément leur place dans les publications auxquelles je collabore. Il s'agit simplement de servir la vérité dans la fidélité à l'enseignement traditionnel de l'Église.

São Francisco de Sales (1567–1622) foi um bispo, teólogo, escritor e diretor espiritual francês, conhecido por sua mansidão, sabedoria e profundo amor por Deus. Nasceu em Savóia, então parte do Ducado de Saboia (hoje França), em uma família nobre. Estudou Direito e Teologia na Universidade de Pádua, e foi ordenado sacerdote em 1593.

Em um tempo de intensas tensões religiosas devido à Reforma Protestante, Francisco destacou-se por sua caridade, paciência e argumentação serena, evangelizando a região calvinista de Chablais com notável sucesso. Foi nomeado Bispo de Genebra (residindo em Annecy por causa da hostilidade protestante) e exerceu o cargo com grande zelo pastoral.

É autor de obras espirituais que se tornaram clássicos, dos quais destacamos o “Tratado do Amor de Deus” – profunda reflexão sobre o amor divino e a união da alma com Deus.

Francisco de Sales teve grande influência sobre a espiritualidade moderna, defendendo que a santidade é possível a todos, não apenas a religiosos. Foi também diretor espiritual de Santa Joana de Chantal, com quem fundou a Ordem da Visitação de Santa Maria.

Faleceu em 1622 e foi canonizado em 1665. Em 1877, foi declarado Doutor da Igreja, e é patrono dos jornalistas, escritores e comunicadores católicos, por sua habilidade de evangelizar por meio da palavra escrita.

This article introduces the topic of liturgical spirituality. This argument is not new. However, the originality of the article is to resume its link with the liturgical movement (as a framework for understanding this spirituality) and the conciliar reflection to -in a second moment- enrich the look with the contributions of the liturgical magisterium of Pope Francis. It is a dynamic proposal in which the great affirmations of the SC are decisive but seen in continuity with its germinal preparation in the liturgical Movement and its actualization in the current journey of the Church expressed in the teachings of the Argentine pope.

Pope Francis appointed Robert Prevost in 2023 to lead the Vatican office that vets bishop nominations—one of the Church’s most powerful roles. And now, Prevost, 69, has become Pope Leo XIV, the first American pontiff. A Chicago native and Peruvian citizen, Prevost lived in Peru for many years, first as a missionary and then as an archbishop. In his first address, he spoke in Italian and Spanish as he greeted the crowd in Saint Peter’s Square. He had prominence going into the conclave that few other cardinals have. For in-depth analysis and a deeper perspective, FRANCE 24's Mark Owen is joined by our International Affairs Commentator Douglas Herbert and is pleased to welcome Dr. Andrew Chesnut, Professor and Chair in Catholic Studies at Virginia Commonwealth University.

Buku ini menggali hubungan mendalam antara spiritualitas dan krisis ekologis, menawarkan perspektif teologis yang transformatif untuk merespons kerusakan lingkungan. Dengan merujuk pada ajaran berbagai agama—Islam, Kristen, Hindu, Buddha, dan tradisi spiritual lainnya—penulis menunjukkan bahwa merawat bumi bukan hanya tanggung jawab ilmiah atau politik, melainkan juga panggilan suci.
Melalui pendekatan ekoteologi, buku ini mengajak pembaca untuk:
> Memahami krisis lingkungan sebagai krisis spiritual
> Menemukan nilai-nilai agama yang mendukung keberlanjutan
> Mengubah kesadaran menjadi aksi nyata
Dengan analisis yang mendalam dan inspirasi dari kitab suci, buku ini menjadi panduan bagi aktivis, pemuka agama, akademisi, dan siapa pun yang peduli pada masa depan bumi. Sebuah seruan untuk menyelaraskan kembali hubungan manusia dengan alam—sebagai bagian dari harmoni Ilahi.
"Jika alam adalah ayat-ayat Tuhan yang terbuka, maka merusaknya berarti mengabaikan pesan suci-Nya."
Semoga Bermanfaat!

This article shows how David Hume's notable essay "Of Miracles" responds to the exigency of scientific Christianity by articulating a rationale for divorcing the concerns of English empiricism and Protestantism while also attempting to liberate secular inquiry from religious interference. What it calls skeptical Baconianism denotes how Hume altered Francis Bacon's cultural grammar to reveal the epistemological incommensurability between science and religion and appeal to the strong anti-Catholic and proscientific sentiments of British culture by way of equivocation. In so doing, it shows how Hume attacks the epistemological foundations of scientific Christianity while also exploiting the theological prejudices of English Protestants in the eighteenth century.

This study explores the Biblical Foundations and Catholic Social Teaching (CST) in Promoting Integral Human Development through a case study of the Catholic University of Rwanda (CUR). The objective is to assess how theology students understand, internalize, and apply the principles of CST in their formation and pastoral engagement. The central hypothesis is that while students value integral human development, there exists a gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application due to curricular limitations and socio-cultural challenges. The main research question is: To what extent are biblical and CST principles integrated into the theological and pastoral training of CUR students, and how does this influence their role in promoting human development? Data was collected through a mixed-method approach combining surveys (n=120) and focus group discussions with theology students. Techniques included thematic content analysis and descriptive statistics. Findings reveal that 86% of respondents associate integral human development with the holistic well-being of the person, rooted in dignity and justice. 74% correctly identified scriptural references supporting the common good and solidarity. However, only 41% were familiar with key CST documents such as Populorum Progressio and Caritas in Veritate. While 62% reported involvement in outreach or youth initiatives, only 38% believed CST principles were strongly integrated into their academic formation. Students perceive CUR as a moral model (72%) but expect enhanced curricular emphasis on CST and practical field experiences. The study concludes that strengthening CST integration in theological education at CUR is essential for forming catechists as transformative agents of development in Rwandan society.

"Hernán Rojas hatte im Sommer 2024 die Möglichkeit, den Briefwechsel im Deutschen Literaturarchiv auf theologie- und konzilsgeschichtliche Fragen hin zu untersuchen. Er kann exemplarisch zeigen, dass in den Briefen wertvolle Hinweise auf Rahners Selbstverständnis und noch unbekannte Aspekte der jüngeren Theologie- und Kirchengeschichte zu finden sind." (S. 9)

The Spirit of Christ – The Holy Spirit’s Role in Christian Faith and Experimentál

Drawing on early Church Fathers such as Athanasius and Augustine, the text highlights the relational nature of the Trinity: the Spirit as the bond of love between the Father and the Son. This theological vision clarifies that the Spirit is not an independent agent or a mere extension of historical Jesus-memories but the dynamic force through which the Church continually encounters the living Christ. Pentecost, described as a linguistic and auditory miracle, undoes the division of Babel and initiates a new creation through the new Adam—Christ. The Spirit empowers the Church’s mission and fosters unity amid diversity, making the risen Christ present in the worship, service, and communal life of believers across all cultures and languages. Thus, the Spirit of Christ is the enduring source of the Church’s faith, unity, and witness.

Post-Vatican II conclavism predated sedevacantism. According to the original version, mainly held in the 1960s and 1970s, Paul VI (1897-1978) was a suspected heretic and anti-pope. Still, he could not be deposed by anyone else. The pope had to be convinced of his heresies and conclude that he should resign. Despite Vatican II and the post-conciliar development, the proponents of the thesis believed that some orthodox bishops still existed in the Catholic world. After the pope's resignation, they could summon an 'incomplete council.' It was a church meeting not led by a pope for apparent reasons. The council should denounce the teachings of Vatican II, re-establish the traditional Order of Mass, and elect a new, true pope. The French priest Georges de Nantes (1924-2010) was the thesis's early and vocal representative. The second-wave conclavism of the 1980s and 1990s was different. By then, most sedevacantists claimed that a cardinal who had been a known heretic could never be elected a true pope. Due to his heresy, he was, ipso facto, deposed. The proponents most often argued that John XXIII, Paul VI, and their successors were false popes and that the Holy See was vacant since the death of Pius XII in 1958. Sedevacantist church organizations were developed in the 1980s. Bishops were consecrated, priests were ordained, and sacraments were administered. However, some groups asserted that papal jurisdiction had to be restored and that the current ordinations and consecrations were both invalid and illicit, as were the sacraments administered by these clerics; the Holy See could not be indefinitely vacant. Still, there was no universal understanding of how and by whom a true pope should be elected. Some individuals and groups argued that other rules than the common canon law applied in this emergency and that the faithful, laypeople included, could summon a conclave and elect a pope to restore papal jurisdiction. During the 1990s, three known conclaves were held, though several others were prepared. 3 The 1998 Montana conclave was the last in the series. conclave and its preparation, and ordinations, and consecrations are found in Appendices 1 through 12 in this study. Apart from this, a complete list of Pius XIII's formal documents is found in Appendix 13. 3 For good overviews, see Cyrille Dounot, 'Paul VI hérétique?: La déposition du pape dans le discours traditionaliste', in:

This article is concerned with an accurate reading of St. Thomas Aquinas’s doctrine of natural law that would secure the intelligibility of its principles from the reductions of moral emotivism. It aims to show that in light of some criticisms of a “purely ethical” reading of this doctrine, the sources of intelligibility of practical reason cannot be detached from his metaphysical insights, especially those concerning the notion of the good (ratio boni). Moreover, it points out that for Aquinas the principles of natural law based on the intelligibility of the good require some sort of imitation of nature by practical reason. The “purely ethical” interpretations, which tend to disregard the intelligibility of the good manifest in the realm of physical natures, may turn out to be unable to account for the rational truthfulness of the doctrine of natural law intended by Aquinas.

confluyen tendencias identitarias que involucran elementos históricos, estéticos y políticos que son referentes culturales del pueblo otomí, donde la tradición se preserva en imágenes vivas; experiencia performática de la lucha permanente entre los opuestos y la complementariedad de los mismos como elemento fundante de la cosmovisión. Analizo el papel político asumido por el baile, preservado hasta el siglo XXI que suma el valor estético y artístico de las imágenes vivas al recurso político y cultural de las mismas.

Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804) issu du protestantisme piétiste « prussien » 1 , a longtemps été associé, sans doute à tort, aux divers courants libéraux au sein des théologies de la Réforme. Toutefois, il faut reconnaître que ses années de formation au Collegium Fridericianum, ont été "formatrices", malgré les nombreuses obligations disciplinaires faites d'examens minutieux des fautes, d'une certaine exaltation qu'il a toujours réprouvée par la suite et les tentatives peu pédagogiques de modeler les jeunes élèves aux carrières prestigieuses que la Prusse d'alors valorisait comme la théologie, le ministère pastoral, le droit et la médecine, alors que la philosophie n'était pas, alors, socialement considérée par les notables prussiens.

This thesis explores the intersection of spirituality, neuroscience, and psychology in a technologically driven world, focusing on "Soul Being." Examining existential risks and modern philosophical perspectives, this study integrates insights from thinkers such as Daniel Schmachtenberger, Iain McGilchrist, John Lennox, and Martin Heidegger. 
These insights critique the pervasive banality of optimism and cynicism in contemporary culture, allowing instead for a grounded sense of hope. The research employs the Organic Research Method and Microphenomenological Interview Technique to analyse participant experiences, highlighting the significance of questioning the meaning of Soul Being across generations. Findings underscore the tension between technological advancements and spiritual practices, and the importance of community, conversation, authenticity, nature, and embodiment. This study advocates for a balanced approach that integrates Spiritual practices with modern technological realities, offering practical strategies for maintaining spiritual well-being in a rapidly changing world.

The article blends official Church documents, historical and contemporary news sources, papal encyclicals, scripture, and theological reflections to provide a condensed and contextual account of Pope Leo XIV's election and significance. Pope Leo XIV's inaugural message of peace and his role as a peacemaker hold historical importance for the new papacy and its central theme. In his first appearance, the Pope is a harbinger of peace who calls for dialogue, bridge-building, and outreach to those in need.

This article discusses the prospects and pitfalls of science-engaged theology (SET) - a new and growing movement in the science and religion discourse. The guiding question of this enquiry is why, when, and how theology should engage with the sciences. After introducing what I call the 'source account' of SET that has emerged in recent discussion, I show that this basic account often comes with additional commitments: the 'no methodology' and 'locality and specificity' theses, both of which address the 'how' question, and the 'entanglement' thesis, which addresses the 'when' question. I argue that accepting any of them as an essential feature makes SET methodologically flawed. To provide alternative answers, I then propose to interpret the sources of theology in terms of the so-called loci theologici. Recognizing the sciences specifically among the loci theologici alieni also helps to counter the view that SET may spell the end of the discipline of science and religion. The aim is, therefore, to show that the source account of SET, if taken in a minimal sense, is a valuable contribution to the science and religion discourse, without replacing it, whereas SET, if coupled with these additional assumptions, would and has considerably muddied the waters.

This working paper, generated with the assistance of Grok 3, an artificial intelligence assistant, speculatively examines the potential economic and political philosophy of Pope Leo XIV, Robert Prevost, elected on May 8, 2025. By comparing his possible views to Pope Leo XIII's teachings, particularly from Rerum Novarum, and considering Prevost's background and statements, the paper explores his alignment with social justice, workers' rights, and critiques of unregulated capitalism. It also assesses how his Latin American experiences and alignment with Pope Francis might shape his approach to climate change, migration, and moral issues. The analysis suggests that if Pope Leo XIV follows Leo XIII's legacy, his papacy could emphasize balancing economic liberalism with social responsibility, defending traditional Catholic morals, and engaging with global challenges through Catholic social teaching. The new pope's social media posts indicates he is a strong anti-Trumper.

The white smoke that rose from the Sistine Chapel did more than announce the election
of a new pope — it marked a potential rupture in the religious trajectory of the West. The
selection of Cardinal Robert Francis Prevost as Pope Leo XIV represents not just the first
American to ascend the Chair of Saint Peter, but the symbolic handover of the Church’s
highest spiritual office from the European heartland to the American hemisphere. Yet,
this isn’t simply a geographic shift — it is a profound reflection of the Catholic Church’s
historical codes, its contemporary tensions, and its search for a future identity.

The election of Pope Leo XIV (Robert Francis Prevost, O.S.A.) as the first American pope marks a significant moment in the Roman Catholic Church's history, symbolizing both global inclusivity and a renewed pastoral vision. This paper explores his theological formation, missionary experience, and curial leadership, framing his pontificate within the legacy of his namesakes, Leo I and Leo XIII. It argues that Pope Leo XIV embodies a synthesis of doctrinal fidelity and pastoral adaptability suited to the Church’s evolving 21st-century challenges. With roots in Augustinian spirituality and years of service in Latin America, his leadership style offers a bridge between diverse ecclesial contexts and reflects an openness to synodality, reform, and intellectual engagement. The paper concludes that Leo XIV's papacy signals a careful but resolute renewal, affirming Catholic tradition while responding to contemporary demands of ecclesiology, social justice, and global Catholic unity.

This chapter attempts to establish the macro social foundation of lay Catholic social spirituality for healthcare workers that applies the sociological concept of diffused religion as well as civil society's social reform agenda to resist the commodification of health care in the contemporary age. It argues that active involvement in civil society and its advocacy for healthcare reform is a necessary component of Catholic healthcare workers' social spirituality to protect the rights of the poor and live a life of holiness amid the growing marketization of the healthcare system that contravenes the Catholic Church's social doctrines.

In the moments leading up to the Conclave, the sense of loss felt by millions upon the death of Pope Francis resonates deeply with the notion of spiritual fatherhood, a concept that transcends mere title and encapsulates the very essence of the papal ministry. The Pope, as the Successor of Peter, embodies a paternal role that extends beyond the Catholic Church to touch the hearts of humanity at large. This connection is vividly illustrated in the reflections of Pope Saint Paul VI, who articulated the essence of fatherhood as a profound and enduring bond-a feeling that invades the spirit and heart, nurturing an ever-growing relationship with the faithful.

In much of the theological discourse concerning human evolution, the emergence of the human "soul" is commonly treated as off limits from any naturalistic analysis, lest one reduce human uniqueness or the immortality of the soul. This article offers a naturalistic approach to the "soul's" emergence in conversation with Catholic theological commitments, using René Girard's mimetic theory. I argue that locating "religion"-defined as the taboos, culture, and rituals that contained early human violence-as prior to cognition and language better orients our conceptions of what we mean by the human soul and how we evolved into our current form.

“The Overlooked Mystery of the Circumcision,” Catholic Servant (January 2025): 8. Reprinted in Catholic World Report, December 31, 2025. In this article, I look at the importance of this brief scene in the Gospel and explain why it fascinated centuries of Christians.

The research stems from the researcher's own experience of establishing an ethos in a Voluntary Controlled Church of England Primary School, and a desire to find out how other heads have developed theirs. Using a case study approach, the research asked heads to explain their personal values, and if and how they used these to establish their school's ethos. The data generated has provided a detailed description of each school and multiple perspectives of the head teacher's influence upon their school. The case consisted of six Voluntary Controlled Church of England Primary schools in rural Essex. Five semi-structured interviews took place in each school, one with the head teacher, followed by interviews with two teachers and two members of the support staff. An observation in each school looked for evidence of the ethos through all aspects of the setting, including the use of indoor and outdoor areas, the content of displays, and the interaction between the pupils and the adults. Each school's most recent inspection reports from Ofsted and the Statutory Inspection of Anglican and Methodist Schools were scrutinized for references to school ethos, and values, which could contribute towards the data collected in each school. The analysis of the data supports research literature, which highlights the important role of an effective head teacher. The knowledge that has also emerged is the dichotomy faced by some head teachers: whether their personal values serve as a guide to the underpinning of their school values or whether they adopt professional values that support the Christian distinctiveness of the school, even when these are at variance to their own personal beliefs. These embedded values support the development of the ethos in their schools. This research has provided new insights into the development of the school ethos and encourages heads to reflexively consider how their personal values impact upon their school.