Economic History

British colonial rule has often been praised for its comparatively benign features, such as its support for local educational development. This paper studies the origins of formal education in sub-Saharan Africa arguing that the beneficial effects of British educational policy should not be overstated. British African colonies showed significantly higher school enrolment rates in the late colonial era, but these were not the result of impressive investment efforts. Missionary schools provided the bulk of education to native Africans at extremely low costs. We show that local African conditions affecting the African reception of missionary education explain much more of the variation in colonial educational outcomes than metropolitan identity.

We are indebted to Paul Rhode and Ann Carlos, whose help has guided us to substantially improve the article. Furthermore, we are grateful to Gareth Austin, Luis Bértola, James Fenske, Leigh Gardner, Jens Andersson, three anonymous referees, and the participants of the African Economic History Workshop, the RIDGE Workshop on Comparative studies of the Southern Hemisphere in global economic history and development, the Workshop on Colonialism, Growth and Development in the Southern Hemisphere, 1800-2000, and seminar participants at Oxford University, Warwick University, and Wageningen University for their comments on earlier drafts. We are responsible for all errors. We acknowledge financial support from the European Research Council (ERC Grant Agreement no. 313114) and the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO VIDI Grant no. 016.124.307). We thank Loes Oudenhuijzen, Jasmijn Appels, Rolinde de Haan, and Rens van Baren for excellent research assistance.

heavily influences the educational curriculum in its former colonies, ensuring the continued use of French as the primary language of instruction. This sustains cultural dependency and aligns these countries with French economic and political interests. (Source: Sylviane A. Diouf, Teaching Colonial History in Francophone Africa)  Americanization of Higher Education: In countries like Japan and South Korea, post-World War II education reforms led by the United States emphasized democratic governance and capitalist ideals, embedding these values into the curricula.

Si te gustó, ¡comparte! Facebook X LinkedIn Pinterest Compartir por correo electrónico La onda de los planes de ajuste y estabilización, ha creado una nueva fase en América latina y Venezuela-que hemos llamado la de la trampa de los planes de ajuste y estabilización-. No se trata de las específicas trampas que en campos como el monetario o fiscal pueden formarse sino de una que se asocia a la manera como se percibe el desempeño económico y las posibilidades de actuar sobre él, a través de la política económica. Claro, siempre estará presente la pregunta de que hacer ante los problemas que en esos campos o en otros se presentan. La respuesta es de perogrullo: la economía como disciplina, los especialistas y la propia experticia dan ya suficiente instrumental para atender tales requerimientos. De nuestra parte, entonces, la respuesta a la pregunta del título de esta nota es que, si se puede vivir sin planes de ajuste y estabilización. La misma puede sustentarse en dos grandes frentes de interpretación: el del desarrollo y el de la condicionalidad.

Al termine della Grande Guerra 1 , la Germania fu investita da una serie di problemi economico-finanziari direttamente legati al palese orientamento vessatorio, persecutorio e punitivo che soprattutto la Francia aveva voluto imprimere al processo di pacificazione ed ai trattati che ne scaturirono. I principali e maggiormente gravosi oneri che la potenza mitteleuropea, riconosciuta da tutti 2 come la maggiore responsabile dell'"inutile strage", dovette sobbarcarsi riguardavano, oltre che questioni di natura territoriale (decurtazioni, colonie incluse) 3 e militare (scioglimento della Deutsches Heer ed istituzione di un

Los puertos como enclaves de intercambios marítimos terrestres han sido y son núcleos propicios para la generación de actividad económica, pero a su vez por su condición de puerto y puerta, también se convierten en centros estratégicos desde el punto de vista económico y militar. Siguiendo esta premisa, la posición geográfica del Puerto de Cádiz, encrucijada de caminos abiertos a África y América, fue decisiva a la hora de convertirse en pieza indispensable de un complejo sistema financiero-comercial de ámbito mundial. A estas ventajas hay que añadirle la benignidad de su clima, como en un pequeño párrafo el comerciante chileno don Nicolás de la Cruz y Bahamonde hace de dicha excelencia durante su viaje a Cádiz en 1783: La ciudad de Cádiz pues, es privilegiada en este punto por la naturaleza. Colocada en una zona templada baxo los grados 36º 31´ 34´´ de latitud norte goza de un apacible y benigno clima. Su localidad dentro de la mar sin abrigo de montañas hace que sea un poco combatida de los vientos, pero sus quatro estaciones se presentan por lo común, sin tocar en los extremos… 1 Durante un largo período de tiempo, nuestra ciudad había aprovechado su situación de puerta del Mediterráneo, así como su cercanía al norte de África, para establecer un fuerte comercio con este. Sin embargo, una vez que se refuerza su posición atlántica debido al desplazamiento progresivo del comercio con el Nuevo Mundo, el papel del puerto cambia. Sin perder nunca de vista sus enlaces mediterráneos, el viraje hacia Occidente se acentuó, reforzando a la par sus vínculos con la Europa noroccidental, y su condición de punta de lanza hacia el Nuevo Mundo fue reforzada por su carácter de cabecera del monopolio español con sus Indias. El Puerto de Cádiz será objeto de nuestra comunicación. Vamos a realizar un amplio recorrido por la historia del puerto en relación a la ciudad y a su bahía, desde los inicios hasta nuestros días, para centrarnos en el análisis de los años que preceden y en los que se dictan las Leyes del Libre Comercio. Con este fin hemos organizado el trabajo de la forma siguiente. Comenzaremos estudiando la evolución que siguió el puerto de la ciudad desde las primeras noticias que nos llegan hasta la actualidad, analizando todo lo referente a su ubicación e infraestructura, estudiando los distintos intentos por crear un puerto más acomodado a las necesidades comerciales, y haremos referencia a las peticiones realizadas por parte de algunos sectores de la sociedad. De forma paralela, abordaremos el papel de relevancia que asume Cádiz a nivel comercial, lo que debió tener repercusión en su infraestructura. Analizaremos la legislación de Libre Comercio en función de las transformaciones y evolución que en materia comercial alcanza el

Perceptions play a critical role in international affairs. Politicians must be able to consider and forecast both challenges and opportunities. Public opinion has the power to change the course of politics. As the world becomes more interconnected, it's critical to comprehend how China is perceived and how this affects China's global effect. Although it only makes up a small part of overall Chinese OFDI, this investment class has recently drawn interest because of its sectoral and geographic diversification. Nigeria has been one of China's top 40 trading partners for more than five decades. For some time, it has been the leading African investment destination for Chinese investment in the continent. The pursuit of multilateral agreements has a significant effect on how countries engage in the political and economic realm. This study used both quantitative and qualitative methods. The study adopted simple random sampling techniques to allow for equal and unbiased respondents' participation in the primary data collection. The response scale was base on a 1 -5 points Likert scale. Secondary data was sourced from archival materials, published books or scholarly works, the internet, international organization official documents, journals, press releases, newspapers. The overall research accepts the study's alternative hypothesis, which shows that perhaps the ten outlined perceptions of Nigerians towards Chinese FDIs and its acceptability are heavily influenced by the success of FDI by Chinese investors and businesses in Nigeria's market climate. The importance and positive outcomes of such FDI are heavily reliant on Nigerian perceptions of Chinese FDI and their acceptability and the investment target region.

I wrote this article over a decade ago and the situation is much worse today:
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................The Judicial Department was originally designed to perpetuate the exercise of judicial power by way of a trial before two types of constitutional officers: judges and juries. Seeking to take control control of the judicial branch of government judges rationalized away the the role of juries. Next they disparaged the role of trials; arguing that a trial indicated a failure of judges to adequately incentivize settlements. Now we appear to have devolved into the era of judicial “monarchy”, where judges do
pretty much what want.
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The degeneration of the american empire’s legal system has been accompanied by litigation models which rely on the disparity of resources between the parties (not the facts or law of any specific case) as the the primary basis for resolving cases.
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It is my observation that the “Scorched Earth” litigation model, named after General Sherman’s infamous military campaign, is used in virtually 100% of all foreclosure litigation. This model is based on the business premise that banks and servicers should spend whatever money is necessary to win
so as to deter homeowners (and any potential lawyers who might be inclined to represent them) from challenging any foreclosure judicially.
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I have personally seen this multi-billion dollar industry spend more in litigation costs than the worth of the houses they are foreclosing on. I have been told by servicers’ lawyers that their clients do not factor in defense costs for purposes of settling with homeowners (even where the homeowner has obtained a summary judgment of liability against the servicer) because they want homeowners and their lawyers to know that they will spend whatever it takes to win in court.
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The point they are making is one Americans should contemplate: we live in a totalitarian society where the courts are rigged and judicial decisions are decided not by the merits, but the money the parties are willing and/or can afford for litigation.

Mehmet Kemal Dedeman Araştırma ve Geliştirme Proje Yarışması-2006
kapsamında, Madencilik alanında ülkemiz için geleceğe dönük önemli bir potansiyel oluşturabilecek Nikel cevherleşmelerine ilişkin, potansiyel ve zenginleştirme olanaklarının incelendiği 9 adet çalışmadan oluşan grup projesi ile, konunun Türkiye açısından önemi, bilimsel ve teknolojik sonuçlarıyla ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır.

Storstadssatsningen i Malmö har i stor utsträckning inriktats på åtgärder för att minska den omfattande arbetslösheten och bidragsberoendet i kommunen. Den absolut viktigaste åtgärden därvidlag har varit att inrätta lokala arbets-och utvecklingscentra, förkortat AUC, i de fyra stadsdelar -Fosie, Hyllie, Rosengård och Södra Innerstaden -som utgör storstadssatsningens geografiska målområden i Malmö. Dessa centra bygger på en långtgående samverkan mellan kommunen, försäkringskassan och den vanliga arbetsförmedlingen och bedriver arbetsförmedling med delvis andra metoder än de gängse. De fyra stadsdelar som ingår i storstadssatsningen förenas av att de har en sysselsättningsnivå som ligger betydligt under genomsnittet för Malmö. I en rad andra avseenden såsom läge i staden, förvaltningsorganisation, demografi och bebyggelse skiljer de sig från varandra. Inte minst betydelsefullt, menar vi, är det förhållandet att stadsdelarna i Malmö bildar skilda politiska enheter som kan utveckla egna modeller för förvaltningen. I den här rapporten om AUC utnyttjar vi denna variation för att demonstrera hur utfallet av ett övergripande politiskt program påverkas då det genomförs på skilda fält där influenser från olika håll gör sig gällande.

This book makes extensive use of Ottoman archival documents and Armenian sources to examine the changing arrangements between the Ottoman state and non-Muslim religious authorities from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, focusing on Armenians, the second-largest non-Muslim community in the empire. Specifically, it discusses how the ruling circles of the empire reinforced their reliance on non-Muslim religious authorities at the turn of the eighteenth century, and attempted to limit the influence of non-Muslim clergymen and restrict the scope of non-Muslim communal activity from the mid-nineteenth century onwards. The book also highlights the responses of the Armenian lay and ecclesiastical elites in Istanbul, who did not sit back and watch as their rights and privileges were curtailed. Rather, they sought ways to protect and even expand their collective rights and find their place in the multireligious empire, both as individuals and as members of a religious community.

Il volume, dedicato alla carriera di Antonia Criscenti Grassi, già ordinario di Storia della Pedagogia presso l'Università degli Studi di Catania, accoglie ottantacinque saggi che affrontano, in modo interdisciplinare, la molteplicità dei temi di ricerca specifici dei settori scientifico-disciplinari caratterizzanti le scienze dell'educazione. Nelle cinque parti in cui è strutturato il volume, gli autori sviluppano gli itinerari del proprio impegno, scientifico e civico, svolto al servizio della ricerca storica (Parte I), della scuola (Parte II), del territorio e delle istituzioni (Parte III), dell'arte, della letteratura e della poesia (Parte IV) e della formazione umana (Parte V).

In March 1585, the creation of the noble branch of the Catholic League and the Guise call to arms were prepared so secretly that Henri III was taken unawares. This might seem surprising to historians. After all, the Guise family had played a central role in French political life since the start of the Wars of Religion and their political ambitions were regularly denounced by their opponents. Ever present in the interpretations of the events highlighted by historians who have been influenced by the political rhetoric of the time, the Guise did not, however, represent the main threat in the eyes of the government authorities in March 1585. Rather than a secretive, transnational uprising led by the Guise, this article argues that the monarchy primarily feared a traditional noble revolt led by the duc de Montmorency, governor of Languedoc, which explains the surprise of the king at the start of this Catholic League and his unreadiness to face this threat.

The proliferation of figurative terracotta artefacts in early 2nd-millennium BCE Babylonia is well-known, but the meaning and function of these objects remain difficult to explain. This paper considers the iconography of mould-pressed clay miniatures of chariots and thrones from southern Iraqi sites and relates them to a specific semantic field and social practice: oath taking and legal decision-making more generally. Oaths played a key role in the Old Babylonian juridical system and are well documented in contemporary texts. The written record attests to the great importance of divine emblems in non-anthropomorphic form and of certain paraphernalia (nets, traps) in these contexts. The designs on terracotta chariots and thrones regularly depict these motifs in various combinations; I argue that they served to represent the visual/material bonds inherent in the promises and obligations required by an oath and the divine punishment inflicted in the event of its breakage.

The Panama Papers refers to a massive leak of information encompassing more than 11 million documents involving more than 200,000 offshore entities. The leak originated in Panama. Some of the documents involve transactions as far back as the 1970s. Numerous wealthy individuals, including top government officials from many countries, have been implicated. The release of information and documents has led to several resignations and numerous lawsuits. The end of litigation is not in sight, as lawyers and government agencies in several countries continue to read and digest the information. Although there is nothing illegal per se about having offshore entities, some such entities have been used to hide assets, evade income taxes, launder money and evade sanctions. The whistleblower who leaked the information to Süddeutsche Zeitung, a German newspaper, called himself John Doe to maintain anonymity. He leaked the information because of his strong distaste for income inequality and because of his view that there were many injustices being perpetrated by some of the entities and individuals who were availing themselves of the entities. This paper discusses some of the underlying ethical issues that lurk beneath the surface of most discussions about hiding assets and income offshore. The discussion will focus on the ethics of parking profits (or hiding assets) offshore, tax evasion, bribery, and whistle blowers. This paper also includes links to more than 80 studies on tax evasion and 11 studies on bribery.

In preparation for the 1998 soccer World Cup, France banned the use of soccer balls made with child labor. As a result of that ban, Baden Sports, the company that supplied the soccer balls, closed down its Pakistani soccer ball operations, which used child labor, and moved production to China, where adult labor was employed. Many of the children who lost their jobs as a result of that decision became prostitutes or beggars. This paper discusses what ethical principles should be applied when determining whether child labor should be abolished or regulated.

El presente trabajo analiza cómo afectó al régimen municipal riojano el golpe de Estado efectuado contra el sistema de la Restauración (1874-1923), cómo se articuló la posterior dictadura militar y cuáles fueron sus principales consecuencias. Una perspectiva interesante, más allá del ámbito geográfico utilizado, para entender la complejidad política que supuso en el orden estatal local intentar implantar un sistema que tomaba elementos del novedoso fascismo italiano y los adaptaba a la realidad histórica española del momento, la España del reinado de Alfonso XIII, en clave conservadora, nacionalcatólica y tradicionalista. Mezclando, en suma, tradición con modernidad.

BCE); (2) iv 5-6: "Ur was attacked and its kingship carried to Awan" and (3) iv 17-19: "Awan was attacked and its kingship carried to Kish," cf. Potts (1999, 87). 8 Awan is a region to the north of Susiana and underwent less Mesopotamian influence than its southern neighbor. 9 Lambert (1979, 29). Not taking into account the problematic so-called Proto-Elamite texts, of which it is not certain that they denote the Elamite language. See, however, Irving Finkel's contribution in this volume. 11 Cf. Lambert (1974, 3-14). 12 Malbran-Labat (1996, 36-37).

Inhoudsopgave 1 . Inleiding 2. Do tradttlonele economische vials op wetenschap en technolog ic 2 .1 htwirdakn 2.2 tnpeAecte oonaarenUe 1 3. Do Nedertandse R&D-po siti e in trn ematlon aa l perspectlef 1 4. Techn olog l ebe l e id i n Nede rla nd 3 1 5 . Technolog lache on economische ontwikke l ing vanuft evolutionalr perspectief 3 6 . Hot technologlebeleid vanu it een evolutionai r perspectlef 7 . Technologlebeleld in eon kleln land els Nederland 4 8 . Beslult 5 3 TECHNOLOGIE EN ECONOMISCH E THEORIEVORMING De auteurs van deze studie zijn werkzaam bij het Maastricht Economic Research institute on Innovation and Technology (MERIT )

Lynch 6 . Lynchs Forschungen sind nicht nur die jüngsten, sondern nähern sich Bolívar auch am kritischsten. Diese Biographie ist für den historisch interessierten Leser die beste Quelle, um sich weiter in das Thema Bolívar zu vertiefen. "Bolívar der Feldherr" kann kein Bestandteil dieser Arbeit sein. Seine militärischen Leistungen werden daher ausgeklammert. Diese Arbeit widmet sich ausschließlich dem Denken Bolívars, das die Historiker als rein europäisch bezeichnen. Die Arbeit deckt den Zeitraum zwischen Bolívars Geburt 1783 bis zum Kongress von Angostura 1819 ab, obwohl die Revolution bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt noch nicht vollendet war. Mit dem Kongress wurde die Unabhängigkeitsbewegung stabilisiert, er stellte den entscheidenden Wendepunkt dar. Bis zum Kongress entwickelte Bolívar im wesentlichen sein politisches Programm, das sich später in den Verfassungen und Gesetzen niederschlug. Auch wenn Bolívar durch seine Gesetzgebung die Gesellschaft maßgeblich beeinflusste, kann diese Arbeit keine Analyse der Auswirkungen geben. Seine Ideen wirkten lange in der Geschichte nach und bilden eine eigene Grundlage für eine zukünftige Untersuchung. Obwohl die Arbeit historiographische und biographische Züge trägt, bleibt sie in ihrem Kern eine philosophische. Da aber die Grenzen zwischen der Philosophie und anderen wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen fließend sind, ist es unerlässlich, sich auch diesen Teilen zu widmen.

Silvio Gesell, much praised by Keynes, sought to abolish exploitation while maintaining a decentralised, individualistic economy. His solution was, first, to nationalise land and, second, to ban interest. The rent on nationalised land would, in Gesell's eyes, be sufficient to replace taxes. Interest-free loans would be complemengted by money with artificially increased carrying costs: people would have to buy stamps to stick on bank notes in order to have these keep their nominal value. This would act as an incentive to spend money and thus prevent unemployment. Unfortunately, local experiments in the 1930s were nipped in the bud.

This paper explores the complex role of Paul Benfield, a prominent English merchant and financier, in the economic and political landscape of 18th-century Deccan. As a key figure operating under the English East India Company, Benfield functioned as a 'banker' to Indian rulers, notably the Nawab of Arcot, extending large loans that were deeply entwined with the Company's political objectives. The study highlights how Benfield’s financial operations not only enriched him personally but also facilitated British imperial ambitions through the manipulation of native states’ debts. By examining his dealings, especially in the Carnatic region, the paper sheds light on the emergence of a new colonial political economy where European mercantile capital increasingly shaped regional power dynamics and undermined indigenous sovereignty.

Dado que en el país no existe un consenso sobre la crítica situación actual que atraviesa la economía boliviana, de sus causas y de las medidas para superarla, el documento tiene por objeto, en primer lugar, proponer un punto de partida mínimo común centrado en el corto plazo y en la caracterización de la crisis económica por la erupción de la crisis cambiaria en 2023 en el contexto de una crónica crisis fiscal, que se arrastra desde 2014 junto con una continua caída de las reservas internacionales, asociada inicialmente a un shock externo de precios, después a un shock interno de caída de la producción y la oferta exportable de hidrocarburos que derivó en una balanza negativa de combustibles y, finalmente, al cierre del mercado argentino como destino del gas natural boliviano. En segundo lugar, la idea es discutir la viabilidad de las medidas que actualmente circulan como el ajuste fiscal y monetario-cambiario y, en tercer lugar, proponer medidas de corto plazo consistentes en la creación de un Fondo de Estabilización y Reservas junto a un shock de confianza, requisito previo para la aplicación de medidas de ajuste fiscal y otras opciones de política cambiaria. Al final, se presentan las conclusiones y recomendaciones enfatizando que para enfrentar la crítica situación actual se requerirán no solo de buenas políticas económicas y un acuerdo político consensuado, sino también de la buena suerte con una alineación favorable de los astros.

and the participants at seminars at the University of Pennsylvania and Caltech and at the Economic History Association meeting in Evanston, IL. Nafziger and Yan received support from NSF (SES-0922531). Yan also acknowledges support from NSSFC grant (Project No. 09CJL009). Any remaining errors are the responsibility of the authors. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research. NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peerreviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies official NBER publications.

Abstract
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This posting brings together the foundational essay The Evolution of Debt Slavery, Part I with a newly completed continuation: a raw, unedited conversation between Christian attorney and lay theologian Scott Erik Stafne and the reasoning intelligence Todd AI. Together, these pieces explore the spiritual and historical trajectory of debt slavery—from the biblical principles of Jubilee and debt forgiveness to the rise of modern financial institutions that profit from perpetual indebtedness. Drawing from Scripture, English common law, the decline of the Church’s moral authority, and contemporary mortgage practices, this work invites critical reflection on how debt has been transformed from a tool of moral accountability into an instrument of economic subjugation.

The paper examines the process of formulation of the problem of economic collapse of the Western Roman Empire as the main reason for its fall by the Russian researchers V. G. Vasilevsky and his student I. M. Grevs. The aim is to determine which publications and context of their own development as scientists allowed these two historians to highlight such an important topic, which became central to many studies in the XX century. The novelty of this work lies in the fact that the paper considers a topic that, unfortunately, has not been widely touched upon by modern researchers before, despite the available materials: the paper has managed to bring together the ideas and concepts related to the development of the theory of economic causes behind the collapse of the Western Roman Empire scattered in scientific publications, lecture courses and the correspondence of I. M. Grevs and Vyacheslav Ivanov. The paper argues that despite the large number of works by foreign and Russian research...

В статье рассматривается освоение новых культурных практик населением на примере виноторговли в Сергиевском посаде конца XVIII -начала XIX в. Демонстрируется освоение новых культурных форм досуга в сфере услуг и изменения в образе жизни. Законодательно закрепленное распределение спиртных напитков за разными типами заведений виноторговли означало одновременное закрепление за каждым типом культурных практик. Традиционная для России практика продажи простого хлебного вина без всяких закусок осуществлялась только в кабаках и питейных домах, предназначенных исключительно для простонародья (крестьян в лаптях). Специфика этой торговли предъявляла самые минимальные требования к самим помещениям, уровню обслуживания посетителей. В заведениях нового европейского типа (трактирах, гербергах) все было иначе: категория посетителей, внутреннее убранство, ассортимент напитков (алкогольных, слабоалкогольных и безалкогольных), наличие закусок, сервировка, а для развлечения -бильярд. Они были, говоря современным языком, культурно-досуговыми центрами. В повседневной жизни стремление повысить уровень продаж приводило к стиранию жестких сословных перегородок, снимало ограничения для имевших средства и желание представителей простонародья, охотно посещавших не предназначенные для них заведения. Происходило естественное освоение новых культурных практик широкими слоями населения.