Freidel publications

David Freidel

Freidel publications

David Freidel

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This volume summarizes archaeological investigations at Yaxuná conducted from 1986 to 1996, detailing survey data, excavations, artifact analyses, and interpretations. It highlights the completion of seven doctoral theses stemming from the Selz Foundation project, with a focus on the stratigraphy and faunal remains analyzed from the site. The report also includes discussions on zooarchaeological findings, emphasizing the diversity and dietary practices of the ancient Maya and their interactions with local fauna.

Figures (403)

Figure 2.3: Y axuna Monument 1 (taken from Brainerd 1958)

conquests (by Coba, the Puuc, and the Itza sequentially) and argued that the construction of Saché 1 represented the incorporation of Yaxuna into the Coba polity as distant outlying architectural group which may have functioned similarly to the monumental assemblages closer to Coba (see also Folan 1983; Stanton and Freidel 2005). Although late period structures were targeted for this research, many of the buildings had complex occupational histories dating back to the Early Classic and Formative. Further, a range of small structures not thought to date to these later periods was tested, in order to obtain a better understanding of domestic settlement throughout the entire chronological sequence. excavated the satellite acropolis group of Xkanha during the 1991, 1992, and 1993 seasons. Xkanha lies two kilometers north of the core area of the site. Ardren’s excavations revealed that Xkanha was composed of a small acropolis with a patio-quad compound and associated mounds set atop a limestone outcropping adjacent to the only other cenote within the site center. Three distinct occupations were assigned to this site. The first dates to the Early Classic (Y axuna Ila and/or IIb). At this time the patio-quad on the acropolis was constructed. Ardren (1997, 2002) argued that the Teotihuacan affinities of the people who sacrificed the Y axuna ruler found in Burial 24 (described below) and the Teotihuacan style patio-quad as Xkanha (constructed immediately after the sacrifice of the Yaxuna ruler) suggests that a new group of elites took control of Y axuna during the

Figure 2.7: Detail of Northeast Quadrant of the 4E Grid Square

Cnicn — Foundation Brace — Boulder Alignment -- Albarrada Wall

Figure 2.9: Detail of Southeast Quadrant of the 4F Grid Square

Figure 2.10: Detail of Northeast Quadrant of the 5E Grid Square

Figure 2.11: Detail of Northwest Quadrant of the 5E Grid Square

Figure 2.12: Detail of Southeast Quadrant of the 5E Grid Square

cleared at Structure 6F-3. A Terminal Classic stairway was followed less than halfway up the structure. It is unknown whether this stairway was completed, partially dismantled, or has suffered extensive postabandonment destruction. This stairway likely rose higher than its present level, but the evidence is inconclusive. Behind this stairway, the treads of a better preserved Early Classic stairway were exposed. This stairway led excavators to a series of Early Classic rooms and passageways known as the labyrinth. In 1993, Charles Suhler followed architectural features to the tomb of an Early Classic ruler (Burial 23). This tomb had been sealed by subsequent construction only after it had been re-entered during an apparent ritual activity where the tomb underwent an apparent smoking ritual (Suhler and Freidel 1998). In 1996 during the consolidation of the Burial 23 excavation, several other passageways were discovered.

Figure 2.14: Detail of Northeast Quadrant of the 5F Grid Square

Figure 2.15: Detail of Northwest Quadrant of the 5F Grid Square

Figure 2.16: Detail of Southeast Quadrant of the 5F Grid Square

Figure 2.17: Detail of Southwest Quadrant of the 5F Grid Square

Figure 2.18: Detail of Northeast Quadrant of the 6E Grid Square

Figure 2.19: Detail of Northwest Quadrant of the 6E Grid Square

Figure 2.20: Detail of Southeast Quadrant of the 6E Grid Square

Figure 2.21: Detail of Southwest Quadrant of the 6E Grid Square

Figure 2.22: Detail of Northeast Quadrant of the 6F Grid Square

Figure 2.23: Detail of Northwest Quadrant of the 6F Grid Square

Figure 2.24: Detail of Southeast Quadrant of the 6F Grid Square

During the 1995 and 1996 seasons, Justine Shaw (1998) began a program of mapping of transects and milpas in the periphery of the site. While the program of settlement research in this zone was not able to be completed, the work that was done provides insights into the extent of the settlement of Y axuna. A transect was extended to the east, along the southern edge of Saché 1, for a distance of one kilometer from the previously mapped portion of the site (into Quadrants 7E and 8E). This indicated that, while dense settlement including substantial structures continued for much of the transect, a noted density drop- off did occur towards the end of the mapped zone. Interestingly, the density in this part of the site, along the roadway, was not notably higher than equivalent

Figure 3.1: Map of Geological Zones (after Wilson 1980)

Figure 4.1: Ceramic Chronology of Sites in the Maya Lowlands

Figure 4.2: a) Dzocobel Red on Black; b) Uchben Incised Dichrome

Figure 4.6: a-b) Dzudzuquil Cream to Buff; c-d Tumben Incised; e) Majan Red on Cream

Red and was produced alongside this diagnostic Middle Formative redware for some time towards the end of the Middle Formative in Northwestern Yucatan and Belize. In short, there is a transition from Joventud to Sierra that results in an overlap of the two types at the end of the Middle Formative (Gifford 1976:83; Kosakowsky 1987; Kosakowky and Pring 1991; Pring 1976:19). At Cuello, where this identification problem is not as pronounced, a transitional type, Sierra Red: Ahuacan variety has been seriated out. At most sites, however, this distinction is too difficult to be made. Analysis of the ceramics from the

settlement zone at Yaxuna during the 1997 laboratory analysis confirmed that Sierra Red overlaps Joventud Red during the Middle Formative. There is evidence of some Sierra/Joventud overlap prior to the onset of the Late Formative which may be seriated out of the current chronological system. Formative monochrome red wares at Yaxuna were difficult to distinguish, but were differentiated based on variations in slip, paste, and vessel form when diagnostic attributes could be identified.

After the Middle to Late Formative transition, a pure Chicanel ceramic inventory developed at Yaxuna reflecting a standardization of Maya ceramics during this period with an emphasis on regional ceramic spheres (Fry 1989:98; Willey et al. 1967). Although the Yaxuna material evinces strong ties to the general Chicanel development, its strongest relationship to published material is with the Late Nabanché material at Komchen and Dzibilchaltun (Figures 4.9-4.14).

Figure 4.14: a) Flor Cream; b) Mateo Red on Cream; c) Lechugal Incised; d) Dzilam Verde

Figure 4.15: Yaxcaba Striated One important monochrome type that appears to characterize this first phase of the Early Classic is Xanaba Red, a type we previously mentioned that first appears towards the end of the Late Formative. Aside from the polychromes, this particular type is one of the only clear markers of this period. Other ceramics such as Aguila Orange and Balanza Black appear to exist during both Yaxuna IIa and Ib.

Figure 4.24: a) Tituc Orange Polychrome; b-d) Balanza Black; e) Yakchak Striated; h) Hunabchen Red; g) San Blas Red on Orange

Figure 4.25: Maxcanu Buff An extensive analysis of the ceramic material in the settlement zone did not reveal a clear distinctive break between the Yaxuna Ila and IIb assemblages suggesting that the possible overthrow of the Yaxuna ruler and his faction did not impact the general ceramic economy to a great extent. The introduction of foreign types from the west appears to be primarily restricted to the elite

Yaxuna IIb (A.D. 400-A.D. 550) Figure 4.21: a-f) Caucel Trickle on Red; g) Valladolid Incised Dichrome

contexts from the North Acropolis. Thus, it is extremely difficult to differentiate between Yaxuna Ila and Ib occupations in the residential zone in many cases. Changes in the residential assemblages included some trends that were experienced throughout the Maya area including the disappearance of Sierra Red. The Usil Group ceramics also disappear. Thus, Yaxuna IIb is characterized by a lack of abundant redwares, although one Hunabchen Red vessel was recovered in the Burial 24 tomb. Residential ceramic lots dating to Yaxuna Ila and IIb were differentiated based primarily on the presence and absence of Sierra and Usil Group ceramics, but there was great difficulty in accomplishing this.

Figure 4.30: Marmona Impressed Cetelac Fiber Tempered Ware (Suhler et al. 1998), but now it is considered to be the latter facet of Yaxuna IIb. We continue to use the original Yaxuna Ic designation here as to avoid confusion prior to further publication of the Yaxuna ceramic sequence.

Yaxumna IVa (A.D. 700/730-A.D. 900/950) Arena Red vessel, often placed over the face of the primary individual. Cehpech-style slatewares also comprise much of the ceramic assemblage. Johnstone (2001) identified these slatewares as related to the eastern peninsula style. As argued above, we would also include Batres Red in the Late Classic ceramic inventory, although it will remain in the Yaxuna IIc temporal placement until further reexamination of the material. In stark contrast to other Late Classic sites in the northern lowlands, Chablekal Fine Gray was not identified among the thousands of sherds analyzed from the excavations. This type is a major diagnostic of the Late Classic at Dzibilchaltan (Ball 1979:23) and other sites including Coba (Canché 1992; Robles Castellanos 1990:155-157). At this time, we cannot rectify why this diagnostic marker is not present given the construction of Sacbé | to Coba. In any event, the people at Yaxuna were not participating in this widespread ceramic sphere.

the mosaic of subregional spheres in the Petén (Ball 1993:257; see also Webster 1984). The widely believed exception to this point of view is the acknowledgement of strong differences in vessel forms and slip between the slatewares from the eastern and western portion of the peninsula (Andrews and Robles Castellanos 1985; Bey et al. 1992; Robles Castellanos and Andrews 1986). Such differences can be seen at Yaxuna which lies on the border of these two Cehpech subindustries. Yet more recent analyses indicate that there is more model variability among slatewares than was once supposed. Fernando Robles Castellanos (2006; see also Bey et al. 1992) now suggests that at least five different Cehpech zones may be identified instead of just two. Clearly more research is needed to solve the slateware problem. Figure 4.32: a-b) Encanto Striated; c) Oxkintok Composite; d) Saxche Orange Polychrome; e) Chicxulub Incised

Figure 4.36: a) Sacalum Black on Slate; b) Muna Slate

Figure 4.35: a-d) Muna Slate; e-f) Sacalum Black on Slate

Figure 4.39: Cajetes, Sacalum Black on Slate (Above) and Muna Slate (Below)

Figure 4.41: Yokat Striated Figure 4.40: Yokat Striated

Figure 4.51: Sacalum Black on Slate Figure 4.54: Ticul Thin Slate

Figure 4.57: a-b) Akil Impressed; c-d) Tekit Incised

Figure 4.62: Tabi Gouged and Incised At Yaxuna we define Sotuta ceramics as including types such as Dzitas Slate and Dzibiac Red. Pisté Striated also occurs, but much like the slatewares there is confusion as to whether we can use this type to identify “Itza” occupation. Some tradewares also occur at Yaxuna at this time, but in small quantities. Both Silhd and Altar Fine Orange have been identified. Further, very small quantities of Peto Cream were identified.

Yaxuna IVb (A.D. 900/950- A.D. 1100/1200)

Figure 4.68: a) Chacmay Incised) b-c) Mama Red

Figure 5.1: South Profile of Sacbé 1 Ramp and 6E-13

Figure 5.3: Plan View of Structure 6F-14 Figure 5.2: South Profile of Test Pit on the Summit of Structure 6E-13

Outside of the structure, the fill consisted of a brown soil mixed with cobble and plaster sloughed off the structure. Four courses of stones were still extant. The presence of larger stones adjacent to the wall, however, suggests that it was at least one course higher. Many large tabular pieces were recovered in the collapse, probably representing the final course. A large piece of very hard white plaster with three right-angled sides ten centimeter cm thick suggests that the upper surface of the structure was capped in this material. A two centimeter thick coating of beige unpainted plaster lipped up from the floor surrounding the structure to cover the walls to a height of two or three courses (Figure 5.4). The fill within the structure was quite different from that outside the structure. It was composed primarily of wet laid white marl with gravel and the occasional cobble. The stones forming the wall were placed with their flattest face facing outwards. As a result, the inner face is quite irregular, making this an unlikely room. A polished white plaster floor was encountered under the lowest course of stones at a depth of 75 cm. The ceramics from the building fill included Muna and Yokat types suggesting a Terminal Classic Cehpech construction.

construction corresponding to the original building of structure 6F-12. Between the ash and the bedrock was a 1-10 cm layer of red silt containing very few weathered ceramics. Three sub operations were opened to the north, south, and west of the first unit to define the parallel wall lines visible at the surface. The excavated material was unlike that from within the sunken feature, or from the flagstone floor surrounding it. These perimeter areas were composed primarily of loose angular boulders and cobbles with little soil matrix and no evidence of a floor. Upon clearing, a two course wall 40 cm high was exposed forming an oval enclosure for the sunken feature. A raised rectangular platform measuring 4.5 X 3 m and 25 cm in height was built onto the west end of the original structure giving it a T-shaped plan. This platform was composed of dry core fill capped with gravels and sascab and then plastered. Resting on the plastered surface was a one course high wall built onto the oval structure, squaring off the original construction with respect to the platform.

Figure 5.5: Plan of Structure 6F-12 western side of the unit was composed of very dark brown silt containing angular cobbles mixed with randomly oriented vault and veneer stones. The unit was expanded to define the rest of the feature, revealing an oval pit 2.2 m long by 1.5 m wide. A second semicircular foundation brace was exposed at the surface along the west edge of the pit.

Figure 5.8: Excavations at the Ballcourt Operations 76 and 2 represent excavations in the west and east ranges of the ballcourt. The ballcourt straddles Sacbé 3 as it approaches the North Acropolis, and forms the southem limit of the ballcourt plaza. Excavations were concentrated in four areas around the ballcourt: the playing surface, the benches, the end walls, and the western extension of 6F-15 (Figure 5.8). The ballcourt was further excavated and consolidated by Lourdes Toscano Hernandez en 1997 and 1998.

Figure 5.12: Western Extension of Ballcourt

Figure 5.14: Construction Sequence of the 5E-73 Complex Sometime in or between Y axuna Ila and IIc the 5E-73 Complex platform was extended to the north. There is good evidence of a Y axuna IIb occupation of the complex based on sherd material found in later fill, but there is no direct evidence of any constructional activity at this locus. The second platform wall in Op. 3g may have been constructed during this period, but the ceramics are equivocal. At Structure 5E-77, there does not seem to be a reflooring episode during this period and it is not known whether this locus was in use. The mixed midden material underneath the 5E-73 platform and the westem stairway of Structure 5E-75 contain Y axuna IIb ceramics suggestive of habitation, but the material may have come from the 5E-75 locus.

Clearing of the south face of the extension revealed a layer of collapse over a termination deposit. The collapse consisted of a mix of fill stones and facing stones in a loose sandy matrix. A broken glyph block reading kan, was recovered from the collapse layer (Figure 5.13). It is likely that this block was robbed from an earlier structure and used as fill, and that it became exposed when the western extension began to collapse. The termination deposit consisted of a 20 cm thick layer of white marl containing a dense concentration of large reconstructable Cehpech vessels. Such a deposit was found in front of Structure 6F-68, and probably relates to the destruction of Y axuna in the Terminal Classic. At the west end of the extension, the floor steps up 30 cm. Operation 3: 5E-73 Complex

Op. 3b, another 2 X 4 m unit (Figures 5.15 and 5.16), was opened up immediately east of Op. 3a, in order to investigate the comer and wall of the east room of 5E-75. Five to six courses of a front wall of 5E-75 were found (Figure 5.17). Around the footing of the wall, fill changed from a medium brown to light gray brown. Floor was located in patches near the base of the wall. Sherds in the fill were primarily Terminal Classic. Inside the structure, floor was found intact in a few places within 20 cm of the wall. Ceramics from this lot were Late to Terminal Classic. Figure 5.17: Front Wall of Structure 5E-75

Figure 5.15: Op. 3b Profile, East Wall

Figure 5.16: Op. 3b Profile, North Wall

During the Late Classic, Coba appears to have seized control of Yaxuna. The superstructure of 5E-75 was almost completely razed and reoriented towards the north where a new stairway was constructed on top of the Y axuna IIc stucco melt from the platform wall suggesting a time lapse between the Y axuna IIc occupation at this structure and the Coba construction. This time lapse may have been due to the hostile nature of the Coba intrusion, although there is a strong possibility that the 5E-73 complex had been abandoned prior to the expansion of Coba. In fact, no termination deposits were excavated in association with the Coba construction as would have been expected if the complex was still in use at the time Classic and the presence of the Y axuna IIc midden under the Late Classic platform suggest that it was a residential complex. The 5E-75 platform is on the larger end of the scale for Early Classic residences at Yaxuna, but the evidence is equivocal as to whether this was an ‘elite’ complex. No workshop material was recovered and the identification of ancillary structures (specifically Structure 5E-77) is tenuous. Two middens with Y axuna IIc material were located between Structure 5E-75 and Structure 5E-77. Given the connection of the 5E-75 complex with the 5E-50 complex, via Saché 8, Structure DE-75 most likely served a part of an extended residential unit related to the upper stratum of Y axuna society.

In all, Op. 3b revealed the presence of three superimposed floors. The latest of these dates to the Late to Terminal Classic and is associated with the superstructure construction. The walls of this original structure appear to have been between four and six courses high with a rubble core. A second floor was intact over much of the unit and had underlying floor ballast and a third floor was found in a deeper level.

Figure 5.18: Northern Side of Structure 5E-75; Stairway is Located Farther to the North at the Base of the Platform

Only on the western stairway did the excavations in Op. 3d penetrate extant architecture to reveal construction episodes (Figure 5.20). This 1 X 1 test pit was excavated to bedrock, in order to date the stairway and any deposits that may have been laid down prior to its construction and remained underneath.

Op. 3g was a 10 X 2 trench placed through the medial axis of the 5E-75 platform, in order to reveal its stratigraphic constructional history (Figure 5.24). The trench began at the northern stairway and continued south where it was terminated five meters north of the

Figure 5.25: Section of the Northem Wall of the 5E-73 Platform

Between the second and third walls the first layer removed was a humic level interspersed with irregular stones ranging in size from small to large. Beneath this level, a gray soil with deteriorated plaster was encountered. As this level is near the top of the walls, it may be the remains of a plaster surface. If so, the surface has deteriorated to a great degree and experienced considerable postconstruction movement.

materials. Based on the construction style of the second wall, the extension probably dates to Y axuna IIa or IIb. The original platform dates to Y axuna Ila. Therefore, the Structure 5E-75-3™ wall must date in or between Y axuna Ila and IIc. On a final note, the kancab was excavated as lot 7/level 3 and includes material from the kancab level behind the third wall. series of irregularly placed limestone blocks (Figure 5.26). There was no evidence of a crypt or prepared burial, nor were any artifactual remains which might constitute grave goods found. In fact, only one sherd (of Sierra Red variety) was located in the entire lot. The osteological material was eroded and fragmentary. Only leg fragments were identified including one femur, two tibia, and a partial fibula. Interestingly, the distal end of the femur did not align with the proximal ends of the lower leg fragments. Although this suggests that the deposition of the bones was secondary and that the rest of the individual may be elsewhere, given the poor preservation, the remaining osteological material may have deteriorated completely. We would surmised that Burial 3 is rather late in the occupational history of 5E- 75, but without the benefit of a sealed context or associated materials the dating remains unclear.

Figure 5.29: Plan of Northeast Comer of Structure 5E-77

Along the western wall of the stairway where it connects to the 5E-75 platform, excavators noted that the stairway was actually tenoned into the platform making the construction of both coeval. The platform wall did not pass behind the stairway. This suggested that the stairway dated to Y axuna Ila. All of the ceramic material on top of the stairway came from unsealed contexts near the surface which is reflected by the mixed Early and Late Classic types that were recovered.

west of Op. 3f on the summit of Structure 5E-77.A 1X 1 m extension was cleared in the southwest corner of the unit, in order to expose a Terminal Classic crypt burial. Beneath the first 10 to 15 cm of humic soil, the excavators exposed another 10 to 15 cm matrix of gray soil, small stones, and deteriorated stucco. All of these levels contained Late Classic ceramics. As the second layer was removed, an unpolished plaster floor (Floor 1) was exposed. This floor was about the same level as the possible Early Classic floor described in Op. 3f. mound above the 5E-73 platform is just over one meter and the walls of the superstructure and the basal platform are not oriented in the same direction which may suggest a temporal gap between the two constructions. Although dating entirely to the Late Classic, the excavations from Op. 3f will be summarized first as it relates to the construction history of Structure 5E-77.

Floor 1 may be an Early Classic floor of 5E-77-2™ Although only deteriorated stucco was found in the upper levels and no concrete evidence of a Terminal Classic floor was recovered, the stratigraphy and associated ceramics suggest that such a floor existed. The data remain equivocal at this time.

Figure 5.32: North Profile of Op. 3} Op. 3j was a 2 X 2 m test pit excavated midway between structures 5E-75 and 5E-77. The upper 20 to 30 cm of the unit was humus (Figure 5.32). Below this level, 80 to 90 cm of platform fill consisting of dry core fill and marl was excavated. As in the excavation through the westem stairway of 5E-75-1* (Op. 3d), midden dating to Y axuna IIc was located beneath the platform. The ceramics were well preserved and the types that were identified were restricted to Dos Arroyos Polychrome and Cetelac Fiber Tempered. The soil itself was very dark suggesting organic decay and contained a fair amount of faunal material.

of structures might be estimated from surface remains; if double-wall lines always indicate the Terminal Classic, investigators might be able to state considerably more about the extent of occupation during this period at Y axuna.

UP. 9 Wdo dil ifllitidl 4 A 4 Il Wol Pll dl Whe oUrTnit OL Structure 5E-19 excavated during the 1989 field season. This unit revealed a very complex and confusing constructional history (Figure 5.34). Structure 5E-19 is a small triadic acropolis in the southern area of the core of the site (Ardren and Johnstone 1996, Stanton 2000; Stanton and Ardren 2005). Morphologically, this acropolis formation resembles typical Formative triadic design with a large temple mound flanked by two smaller structures. Examples of this type of arrangement are best known from the Petén (e.g. Hansen 1992; Ruppert and Denison 1943:20), but a possible Late Formative manifestation has also been tentatively identified in the northern lowlands at the site of X-Huyub near Ek Balam (Ringle and Bey 1992), as well as at Yaxuna and the outlying site of Tzacauil, located three kilometers to the east of Y axuna (Stanton et al. 2008). Recent studies of the megalithic architectural style by members of the Yalahau Human Ecology Project suggest that similar triadic designs associated with sites such as Naranjal and Aké date to the Late Formative, Protoclassic, and Early Classics (Mathews 1998; Taube 1995), although the use of the term Protoclassic here does not seem to be congruent with southern ceramic types such as A guacate Orange. In light of these data, this architectural grouping may be seen as pan-Maya rather than as a Petén phenomenon.

The Structure 5E-19 excavations revealed an extremely complex and confusing constructional history. The summit in particular was modified numerous times, although evidence from the northern stairway indicates fewer construction episodes. Several of the summit constructions appear to have been extensively disturbed by later activity including the razing of architecture prior to rebuilding and stone robbing. This adds to the difficulty of defining the already complex architectural sequence from the summit. Many of the architectural designations presented here are tentative and further excavation is required to clarify the construction sequences.

Figure 3.36: Plan of the Upper Levels of the Summit Excavations of Structure 5E-19

Figure 5.37: West Profile of Summit Excavations of Structure 5E-19

Figure 5.38: South Profile of Terrace Wall of Structure 5E-19

Figure 5.40: South Profile of ‘Box-Like’ Area of Structure 5E-19

In the western portion of the unit, the excavation continued through the gray soil and chich matrix. This appears to be a layer of construction fill for Structure 5E- 19-1 which buried the western steps of Structure 5E-18- 2™ The excavator noted that the chich near the top of this level may represent the subfloor ballast of a deteriorated plaster surface associated with Structure 5E-18-1“. Given this possibility, the rose colored stucco will be labeled Floor 2. This fill continued past the western unit wall and was 15 to 40 cm thick. Below this fill a level of tan soil and large stones was exposed.

associated with the road, operations 1 and 6, would provide a very secure date for this critical construction. IIa and III material along the very deteriorated southern side of the pyramidal base. Although no sealed lots of Early Classic date were found, the data suggest that this structure had a Y axuna IIa occupation.

Figure 5.44: North Profile of Op. 6 Op. 8 was a 2 X 2 m unit placed on the eastern edge of the summit of Structure 5F-3, the tallest structure at Y axuna. Structure 5F-3 is the eastern half of a pair of massive pyramidal structures on the Central Acropolis. Brainerd (1958) studied the ceramics from several trenches placed through the acropolis platform (Structure 5F-1) and was impressed by the Chicanel (Y axuna Ib) date of all of the lots. Subsequently, he and others (Proskouriakoff 1968; Thompson 1954) placed Y axuna in the Late Formative, although few Northern Lowland sites at that time could be assigned such an early date. Two smaller structures flank the western side of the acropolis, but have not been investigated.

Figure 4.43: East Profile of Subfloor Test in Op. 75b layer of pure dry core fill collapse, and a thick level of pure stucco melt. Near the central portion of the unit, two courses of a wall similar to the one located in Op. 7a were documented. This may be a lower retaining wall running parallel to the structure, but not enough of it was exposed to confirm its structural association. Although the ceramic situation was the same in this unit as in the previous one, the bottom levels may shed some light on the decay pattern of the southern face of the pyramid.

The other surprising discovery at the summit of Structure 5F-3 is that no material dating to the Early Classic was located. Unless the unit missed an Early Classic component due to a later razing of the superstructure, this locale at the Central Acropolis was abandoned during the Early Classic. If so, this abandonment may explain the poor preservation of the thick Late Formative floor as it may have been exposed to the elements for several hundred years. During the Early Classic, the North Acropolis became the center for monumental construction and elite burial and seems to have superseded the Central Acropolis. In any event, these are questions which can only be answered through continued excavation and not from a single test pit.

Figure 5.50: Monolithic Blocks at Structure 6E-14

high pyramidal mound. The site grid is centered on this mound as it is located in the very center of the core area of Y axuna. Much of the final construction is discernable from the extant remains. Large monolithic blocks were noted in extant walls and scattered around the base of the structure (Figure 5.50). These blocks are indicative of a megalithic style attributed to northem plains of Y ucatan around the time of the transition from the Late Formative to the Early Classics (Lincoln 1980; Mathews 1998; Roys and Shook 1966; Taube 1995), but may have been robbed from other trsuctures at Yaxuna to construct Structure 6E-14. This style is most well known from sites including Izamal and Aké where it is expressed with an impressive degree of monumentality. Although this style of architecture appears to be concentrated in the northeastern portion of the peninsula, examples of this megalithic style are found from Coba in the east all the way to Oxkintok in the west.

The unit was placed so that it bisected the western wall of Structure 6E-28 leaving a roughly 1 X .75 m unit outside of the structure and a 1.5 X 1 m unit inside (Figure 5.52). A 75 cm balk beneath the wall separated the two portions of the unit. The inside and outside portions of the unit were excavated as separate lots. Inside of the structure, the excavation revealed only chich and dark humic soil to a level of 46 cm below the ambient ground surface. No evidence of a preserved plaster floor was found. Analysis of the ceramics indicated a mix of Formative and Late/Terminal Classic types. Outside of the structure, the excavators proceeded down to a level 77 cm below ground surface without changing lot or level designations. Although the stratigraphy of the outside unit paralleled the stratigraphy inside of the foundation brace, cultural material cannot be assigned to different levels. Given the stratigraphic parallels, there is a strong possibility that the lower levels correspond with Formative occupations of the area. Very little artifactual material was present outside of the structure, but the ceramics suggested a mix of Late/Terminal Classic and Formative sherds.

was not well separated from the previous matrix and some mixing may have occurred. Interestingly, the ceramics identified from this level indicated a strong disjunction from level 2. Middle Formative types including varieties from the Dzudzuquil and Joventud Groups were predominate rather than the Late Formative Sierra group types. This suggests that there is good stratigraphic integrity in the Formative levels of the 6E- 30 Group and that it was a locus for both substantial Middle and Late Formative occupations. Although these levels appear to be fill and are not associated with architectural features, these data suggest that the 6E-30 Group may have been the residential area associated with the Middle to Late Formative 5E-19 temple. This level continued down to bedrock where a sterile red paleosol overlay the capstone. Again predominately Middle Formative types were recovered further reinforcing the stratigraphic integrity of the unit. Op. 14b was placed at Structure 6E-29. This structure, located immediately to the east of Structure 6E-28, is an apsidal foundation brace measuring 6 X 4 m. The structure was oriented northwest to southwest along its long axis and there was no surface evidence for an entrance. The 2 X 2 m unit was placed in the southern interior comer abutting the wall (Figure 5.53). A subfloor matrix of chich and dark humic soil was encountered at 26 cm below ground surface suggesting that the floor of the structure had deteriorated. The ceramics from the humic level were almost entirely Terminal Classic and material from the subfloor ballast contained some Muna Slate suggesting a single period occupation for Structure 6E-29 roughly contemporaneous with Structure 6E-28. Apsidal structures are predominately very late in the northern Maya lowlands (Freidel and Sabloff 1984; Smith 1962), but no Postclassic material was identified.

which are both found in Late/Middle Formative deposits at Yaxuna, were also recovered. Two sherds of an unidentified white-slipped ware were also found. This type is rare at Y axuna, but seems to have been available to the ancient Y axuneros only during a short span around the transition between the Middle and Late Formative. Additionally, a spherical limestone artifact of unknown function was recovered. This object represented half of a sphere and appears to have been fashioned by human hands.

This lot constituted the floor itself and the material directly below it. Nineteen sherds were recovered from this sealed context. All of these materials dated to the Late Formative. These data along with evidence from Structure 5E-19 suggest that the use of thick reddish stucco in the construction of temple structures dates from the Middle/Late Formative transition into the Late Formative contemporaneous with Late Nabanché at Komchen (Andrews 1988). Directly below the floor, dry core fill was encountered. No evidence of a prepared subfloor ballast was noted.

constructed of one course high roughly worked stones which had been coated with plaster. It ran directly north/south, but with the limited exposure the plan remains unclear. The matrix behind the wall to the east was not excavated. It may represent a terrace edge or the foundation brace for a perishable structure. Only further excavation will shed light on this question. Again, the ceramics from this level were strongly weighted towards Middle Formative types, although a few Late Formative types were identified. Beneath the plaster melt, a floor (Floor 2) directly associated with the wall was exposed to the west. Where the floor was best preserved, it was hard and compact, but the effects of weathering reduced most of it to loose sascab. No evidence of subfloor ballast was encountered. Figure 5.60: Plan of Structure 6E-30-3™

Figure 5.61: East Profile of Op. 14f The first level consisted of humic soil and a large number of stones of small to medium size (Figure 5.61). All of the identified ceramics consisted of Middle and Late Formative types. This seems rather unusual given the great degree of Terminal Classic activity in this vicinity. At approximately 20 to 25 cm below ground surface, a lighter brown soil with small stone inclusions was exposed. This level was only about 15 cm thick, but seems to have been the main construction of the causeway. No construction pens were noted, but as the unit was placed near the center of the saché, there was not a high probability of exposing architectural features. The ceramics consisted of pure Middle Formative types weighted heavily on Dzudzuquil Group. Below the construction fill, a red paleosol was exposed. This soil directly overlaid the bedrock. The only identifiable material was a single Middle Formative Dzudzuquil sherd. All of the other eleven sherds were highly eroded and fragmentary suggesting that they had been exposed to the elements for some time before being sealed by Saché 6. One bivalve shell was also recovered.

Figure 5.62: Plan of Op. 14g roughly halfway between Structure 6E-30 and the southemm terminus of Saché 6 on the direct line between them. It measures slightly over two meters on a side.

Structure 6E-32, a 2.8 m mound, flanks Structure 6E-31 on its eastern side and was excavated as Op. 14i. Op. 14i was a 2 X 2 m unit placed on the summit of Structure 6E- 32. No architectural features such as the Terminal Classic foundation braces seen elsewhere in the 6E-30 Group were noted on the surface of the unit except for an historic albarrada.

Op. 14h was opened to explore Structure 6E-26, a small mound on the northern edge of the 6GE-25 group. It is the possible terminus of Saché 6. The majority of the construction of 6E-26 was apparently leveling and terracing the existing natural surface of raised bedrock. As there was no good place to excavate on the summit because of this bedrock, a 2 X 2 m pit was placed near the southwestem basal corner of the structure to investigate a possible stone alignment visible on the surface. density of small stones were noted just above the bedrock capstone. These features may have been placed on the bare limestone to level the surface prior to the construction of Structure 6E-121. The ceramics from this lot were also of Formative date with a heavy emphasis on Middle Formative types. No other artifacts or features which might give a further clue as to Structure 6E-121’s function were recovered.

Excavating into the midden, more material was recovered. The midden continued to a depth of 3.11 m below the summit surface. One chalcedony flake, 20 shell fragments, and 329 sherds were recovered. None of the shell fragments were worked. Again, no faunal remains, obsidian, or charcoal were found. The ceramic material was entirely Middle Formative. Below the midden level, a flagstone pavement was exposed. These stones were roughly shaped and covered the entire area exposed by the unit (Figure 5.65).

Op. 14j was placed to explore Structure 6E-33, a low mound measuring 7 X 15 m. A double wall foundation brace defines the northern side of the mound while remnants of other foundation braces are found along its western and southem extents. Colonial period stone robbing is the most likely explanation for the fragmentary nature of the foundation. A Colonial albarrada bisects the mound in a north/south direction. Op. 14j was a 2 X 2 m unit placed in the center of the mound. As the initial humic level mixed with chich was removed, another double wall line was exposed in the northwestern portion of the unit (Figure 5.66). This wall was roughly oriented east/west. Throughout the remainder of the unit, a matrix of large unworked stones mixed with gravel was encountered. The date of the ceramics from this upper level was equivocal. Most of the sherds were highly eroded. Sierra Red was typed along with tentative identifications of Xanaba Red and Muna Slate. The relationship of the double wall line exposed in the unit and the foundation braces noted on the periphery of the mound is not known. Given their vertical proximity to each other, they may be contemporaneous with the unit wall representing an internal division of the perishable structure. They will all be considered part of Structure 6E-33-1* for the present time.

stucco underlying a red paint (see Coggins 1983). Lazy S-scrolls which have been identified with muyil or clouds (Reilly 1996) were found along with a fragment (lower half) of an anthropomorphic face with a tau-shaped incisor and large corner scrolls in the mouth (Figure 7.71). We have identified this type of face as indicative of Tzuk, the Hero Twins, and First Father, but note that depictions of Early Classic rulers such as the stucco masks at Kohunlich can also incorporate this iconography. Clearly, the symbols which adored

Below the humus, a thick layer of marl was exposed across the entire trench. This marl was divided into two levels. The upper level was much darker than the lower level which is attributable to the leaching of organic matter from the humic level thus staining the marl. In the lower levels, the marl was pure white with no inclusions except for broken stucco facade fragments and large sherds. This marl covered the interior floor and was thickly banked up against both the east and west sides of the structure. Along the exterior portion of the eastern wall, the marl was over one meter thick. Structure 5E-52 was seven meters wide and must have supported a perishable superstructure, although no evidence of wattle and daub or pole and _ thatch construction was recovered. The two outer walls were distinctive from each other. On the western side, the wall was preserved to a higher elevation, but the stones were approximately half the size of the stones used in the construction of the eastern wall. A row of fallen worked stones was documented off of the western wall and may

The interior floor of Structure 5E-52 was well preserved. It was a white and hard plaster surface (Structure 5E-52- 1 Floor 1) approximately 20 cm thick which is indicative of other Early Classic floors at Y axuna. A 3 X 3 m probe beneath this floor in the central area of the room revealed a dry core fill construction. No evidence of a chich subfloor ballast was noted. It is unclear from the field notes if a ceramic sample was recovered from this subfloor test and, if so, to which level it may have been assigned. Beneath the marl off the eastern side of the structure the dE-50 platform Floor 1 was exposed. This surface was very well preserved in this area due to the thick layer of marl which had protected it for centuries and was found to be approximately 20 cm thick. The placement of the floor in association with the Structure 5E-52-1* eastern wall revealed that this floor was constructed in conjunction with the raising of the building. A 2X 3m probe beneath the floor was placed abutting the exterior

of the eastern wall. In contrast to the other operations excavated into the 5E-50 platform, a more complex floor sequence was noted within the first 35 cm below Floor 1. Two more plaster surfaces were exposed. The second of these, Floor 3, was found at 35 cm below Floor 1 and was correlated with Floor 2 in Op. 15c by the excavator. Floor 1 in Op. 15c has been dated to the Terminal Classic, long after any of the surfaces in Op. 15b were likely constructed. This leaves two floors dating most likely to Yaxuna Ila above Floor 1 identified as the final construction of the 5E-50 platform in the Op. 15c excavation. As Op. 15b, Floor 1 is integral to the construction of Structure 5E-52-1", this structure postdates the latest modification of the 5E-50 platform to the east of Structure 5E-52 (unless some evidence for a deteriorated surface is found in the future, an unlikely prospect due to the multiple tests of the platform). This suggests that the final construction of Structure 5E-52 was placed on top of an existing platform and that earlier substructures may lie underneath. The only non-stucco or ceramic artifact recovered was a single obsidian blade fragment.

The red soil and small stone matrix continued to uneven bedrock which was first exposed at 2.5 m. As in the previous level, the ceramics indicated a terminal Late Formative date for the fill. More sherds were recovered in this level, many of which exhibited signs of burning. This may indicate that the material was taken from a Late Formative midden. Additionally, an obsidian blade fragment was recovered.

Floor 2 a brown soil was exposed. No evidence of a chich subfloor ballast was found. The ceramics from this level consisted of Middle and Late Formative types and could possibly be interpreted as being transitional between the two periods. If so, Floor 2 may not be the same as the lower floors exposed elsewhere on the platform. One possibility is that Floor 2 is part of the remains of a substructure below Structure 5E-52-1". Without larger horizontal exposures at this depth, the stratigraphy will remain unclear. At this point in time the 5E-50 platform appears to have several different construction stages and is more architecturally complex than previously thought. The excavations in Op. 15d and 15c are stratigraphically similar, yet Op. 15e-1 and Op. 15a present two different stratigraphic profiles. The present excavations of the plaza are not adequate for understanding the relationship of different construction episodes and the architectural morphology of the platform over time.

represents. It does not date to the previously identified ritual terminations of the structure, although this type of activity cannot be ruled out. More likely, the marl may be the remains of eroded plaster from the interior structure walls or a poorly weathered reflooring episode. Floor 1 was roughly 10 cm thick. Below this surface, a matrix of marl and small stones was encountered. This matrix appears to be construction fill and functioned as a subfloor ballast for Floor 1. At approximately 60 cm, Floor 2 was encountered. This surface was very thin and rested on top of an earlier substructure (Structure 5E-59- 2™). As Floor 1 appears to be a reflooring episode, Floor 2 is also designated as Structure 5E-59-1". The exposed walls of Structure 5E-59-2"' suggest that it was a two course foundation brace for a perishable superstructure that was of a tandem plan (Figure 5.78). The matrix surrounding this structure was a mixture of marl, and small to medium sized stones. The ceramic material from this level also suggested a Late/Terminal Classic date.

Op. 15g was a 2 X 2 m unit placed along center of the southem edge of Structure 5E-59, a 12 X 17m mound on the northwest extension of the 5E-50 platform. The structure faces west with a stairway leading from the base of the mound directly off of the basal platform towards a cluster of low mounds and superstructure foundation braces. Structure 5E-59 rises a little over one meter above the surface of this platform and another stairway was located in the short space between Structure 5E-59 and the back of Structure 5E-52. Op. 15g was excavated in arbitrary 20 cm levels.

This lot consisted of the excavation of Floor 3 and included a small portion of the underlying dry core fill. Floor 3 was approximately 20 cm thick. Only six sherds were recovered. Only one was identified (Caucel Trickle on Red). No other artifacts were recovered and no architectural features were noted. Given the evidence from Op. 15h, Floor 3 appears to have been the first raised portion of Structure 5E-59 in this area above the 5E-50 basal platform. The dry core fill beneath Floor 3 contained sparse artifactual materials. At approximately 1.5 m, Floor 4 was exposed. Floor 4 was also well preserved across the entire unit, but unlike the thick Floor 3, this plaster surface was only 10 cm thick. From the excavations at Op. 15h, Floor 4 was determined to be the original 5E-50 platform surface. Below this surface, the same mixed red soil and small stones described in the lower levels of the 5E-50 platform tests to the east of Structure 5E-52 was exposed. The material from the first 20 cm of this fill consisted of three sherds dating to Y axuna Ila and one shell fragment. An obsidian blade fragment was recovered near bedrock.

Floor 1 was approximately 10 cm thick and was measured to be at approximately the same level as the floor in Op. 15g. This suggests that they may be part of the same surface, although the difference in subfloor ballast indicates that they may be part of two separate construction episodes. Beneath Floor 1 in Op. 15h dry core fill was exposed in contrast to the red soil and stones encountered undemeath the floor in Op. 15g. All of the sherd material recovered from the uppermost level of the dry core fill was too eroded to be identified accurately. No other artifacts or features were noted.

mounds, as well as a set of unique patio groups which probably served administrative functions (Figure 5.83). The area surrounding the acropolis contains a number of small mounds; five of these were mapped due to their direct proximity to either the acropolis or the cenote. These mounds are largely residential, although we also found examples of well preserved ceremonial architecture in this zone. The cenote is located only 500 m from the acropolis and represents one of the very few fresh water sources within Y axuna territory.

of regeneration at Yaxuna. The Terminal Classic at Xkanha also ended in depopulation or abandonment, again the result of intra-Maya political struggles which appear to have left Y axuna and its allies defeated, while nearby Chichén Itza flourished. There are three occupational periods at X kanha that were recorded during our investigations. The initial settlement occurred at the beginning of the Early Classic, or A.D. 250. We calculate that by about A.D. 450, the area was abandoned, most likely coinciding with a political change at Y axuna (see Ambrosino et al. 2003; Suhler 1996). The second occupational period at Xkanha is the Terminal Classic, from A.D. 750 to A.D.900/1000. This was a time

1400. During this time there is evidence of ceremonial activity, but no residential settlement. A few residential mounds from the Postclassic have been found in Y axuna proper, but it appears that during this time Xkanha and Yaxuna were visited by what has been described as ‘squatter’ or semi-transitory populations. Although this period is still poorly understood, it is clear that any population at the site was greatly diminished after the fall of Terminal Classic Y axuna.

Operations 16-M, 16-T, and 16-U were all located in the area of Structure 13. Excavation in Op. 16-M began with ¢ 2.5 X 2.5 m unit placed at the summit of the southwestern comer of Structure 13. The wall lines which were exposed as part of the testing in 1991 were still visible from the ground surface, and these provided a guide for the location of excavations. Op. 16-M was located to the south of the area excavated in 1991 as Op. 16-D, with the goal of uncovering the exterior southem face of the building. A ftet removal of surface debris and loose humic soil, a large number of collapsed wall stones which had fallen outward from the structure walls were encountered. This collapse was fully documented and then removed to look for in situ architectural remains.

West of the doorway the front wall continued for 2.6 m before intersecting with a partition wall. West of the doorway the wall was better preserved and had plaster remaining in situ in many places. The partitioning wall also had two courses of stone preserved and a narrow central doorway leading into another small room to the west. The southern doorjamb of this doorway contained a single very large worked stone; probably one of the re-used architectural stones from the earliest phases of Structure 11, although we cannot be certain. Op. 72-A began with excavation along the exterior face of Structure 16 which was exposed in Op. 16-W. Surface humic debris and collapse were removed to the base of the wall where a 30 cm wide basal molding joined the wall to the plaster floor. Plaster fragments were preserved on the wall and occasionally were continuous with the plaster floor demonstrating a lipping of the floor. Only two courses of wall stones remained in situ, and the walls of Structure 16 bowed outward, indicating that the upper courses had probably fallen in front of the structure. Clearing along the exterior wall continued for 1.3 m west of the southeast exterior comer of Structure 16 before an entrance into Structure 16 was found. The doorway was approximately one meter wide and proved to be the only entrance into this building. Clearing along the wall continued to the southwest exterior comer of Structure 16, for a total wall length of 9.4 m.

large boulders of the sub-floor ballast which continued for two meters beneath the floor surface before the unit was terminated due to safety considerations. The natural bedrock surface appears to be quite uneven in this area, and the depth of dry core fill found in this unit may indicate that this entire side of the acropolis was shored up to construct Structure 16. The sub-floor sequence showed no evidence of an earlier construction beneath Structure 16 and after the sub-floor test area was fully documented this area was backfilled as was the entire interior and exterior face of Structure 16.

with fine red soil, and no cultural material whatsoever. This area was intentionally filled in either during the construction of Structure 12 or a later modification. Interestingly, the pier on the eastern side of Doorway 1 in Structure 12 also shows signs of structural modification which parallel the facing wall/true wall construction on the opposite side of the doorway. The pier was clearly built in two stages, either for structural modification or stability. smooth plaster floor that extended throughout the unit. Toward the south and the interior patio area, this floor surface curved down six centimeters over a step or curb to a lower plastered level. This curb appeared structurally identical to the platform edge exposed early in Op. 16-K.

Figure 5.92: South Profile of Subfloor Test in Structure 12 conducted inside Structure 12 proper as well. Two 1 X 1 m test units were laid out inside the structure; sub-floor test number 1 was adjacent to the SE interior comer (Figure 5.92), and sub-floor test number 2 was further west and adjacent to wall 1.

Figure 5.93: Northern Profile of Op. 16-V

Op. 72-C began along the eastern side of the interior patio area of Structure 12. We removed surface debris and located an extant wall running north-south between the northem room of Structure 12 and the shrine area, visible from ground surface (Figure 5.94). Excavation began in front of this wall and we removed 20 cm of natural humic soil followed by 65 cm of the deep red sterile soil which was found inside both gallery rooms. This wall had three to four courses of stone preserved with a narrow strip of plaster floor in front and in all respects was identical to the

platform found on the westem side of the patio-quad as part of Op. 16-K in 1992.

We removed surface debris and loose humus soil for approximately 20 cm before exposing large unworked stones which had fallen from the structures to either side of the entrance. In the area in front (to the east) of the entrance we found a lighter tan soil and a higher concentration of ceramic material. The collapse inside the entrance was documented and then removed, although very similar construction fill continued beneath the collapse for 1.3 m before we encountered the natural bedrock surface of the acropolis. Figure 5.99: Southern Interior Profile of Structure 8, Op. 16-A

Preservation on the easter exterior of Structure 8 was not as good, and only a single course of wall stones remained in situ. Y et we were able to define the dimensions of Structure 8, which measured 3.8 X 2.9 m. Floor 1 continued around the eastern side of the building showing that this entire area was built on a single platform surface. The sequence of architectural construction uncovered in the southern half of Op. 16-J was completely distinct from the Structure 8 sequence described above. In front of Structure 9 we encountered the first floor only 60 cm below ground surface datum, and although broken in places, overall this floor was in a much better state of preservation than the floor associated with Structure 8. The surface of the floor in front of Structure 9 was much smoother and very well polished, although its overall thickness was only two to five centimeters with very little sub-floor ballast between the plaster and the large boulder fill beneath it. Floor 1 of Structure 9 extended only 30 cm in front (to the north) of the structure, leaving an area of approximately two meters of broken plaster between the two structures. The floor lipped up the front of Structure 9 and covered most of the first course of the northern wall of this structure. Figure 5.100: Southern Exterior Profile of Structure 8, Op.16-J

Figure 5.101: Plan of Structure 9, Op. 16-L

Figure 5.103: Plan of Structure 2-2™, Op. 16-H

Figure 5.104: Profile of Eastern Interior Wall and Entranceways of Structure 11, Op. 16-X

Figure 5.106: Southern Profile of Sub-Floor Test in Structure 11, Op. 16-X

northem third of the unit. At first this stone appeared to be bedrock, but when fully uncovered, it clearly had worked edges and a depression worn in the center. This stone may have been a discarded pila. Due to time constraints this feature was not further investigated. True bedrock was encountered 1.4 m below ground surface. All ceramic material from this excavation dates to the Early Classic. was cleared of 10-15 cm of loose matrix which contained a large amount of Terminal Classic slateware ceramic material and small stone. The soil was brownish gray, flecked with sascab fragments, and represents the remains of a highly eroded floor surface. Directly below this eroded surface we encountered dry core fill of primarily large unworked boulders and very little soil. This loose dry construction fill was virtually sterile, and was removed to a depth of 2.2 m below ground surface before the unit became unsafe and excavation was concluded. The analysis of the ceramic material recovered from the dry core fill indicates that this platform was built in the Terminal Classic. The lack of other cultural material in the fill, as well as the general homogeneity of fill material, leads us to the conclusion that these defensive modifications were conducted in a relatively brief period of time, when the inhabitants of X kanha needed to create a highly secure and private area, fortified against possible intrusion.

Figure 5.108: Southern Profile of X kanha Structure 6, Op. 16-G

Figure 5.109: Plan of Structure 4-2", Op. 16-Z

Structure 15 as evidenced in the red-painted plaster surface still intact on the exterior of and which continued behind the stairs themselves. Thus, the construction of this stairway may coincide with the re-plastering of the interior of Structure 15.

above this first floor dates to the Terminal Classic. Some small fragments of stucco, probably fallen from the walls, were mixed in with the material from this level. Floor 2 was encountered only ten cm beneath Floor 1. The matrix between floors 1 and 2 was gray, loosely packed and contained very few sherds. These sherds have been identified as Terminal Classic types.

Figure 5.112: North-South Profile of X kanha Structure 10

techniques used in the construction of Structure 2 indicate this building was built rapidly, during a period of limited construction resources. Further excavation uncovered the foundations of two C- shaped rooms at either end of the rectangular platform of Structure 2. The room block on the eastern end of Structure 2 is a simple C-shape, with the entrance from the west, allowing access only from the interior of Structure 2. The other C-shaped room block on the western side of the structure has two entrances, on both the eastern and western sides of the room, allowing access from the exterior as well as the interior of Structure 2. In front of the entrance to this western room is a patio which runs the length of the western side of Structure 2, and is three meters wide. This patio is paved with a mixture of small stones and chich set into the floor. There is no evidence that this area was plastered over as was the interior floor. The patio level is contiguous with the platform level of Structure 2 and slightly lower than the interior floor. The design of Structure 2 is very similar to residential structures found at a satellite residential group 3.5 km from the center of Coba.

cm of surface soil a number of incensario fragments were discovered, including one intact basal foot. These fragments were encountered directly above the construction fill which would have underlain a floor in front of the shrine. No evidence of the floor survived. The construction fill consisted of medium to large unworked stone with very little matrix or ceramic material, underlain by large boulders. The unit was terminated 1.7 m below ground surface in nearly sterile construction fill. It appears that this is a single component Postclassic mound, although the well preserved shrine at the summit deserves further excavation. All the ceramics recovered from this excavation were Postclassic incensario wares.

Figure 5.118: West Profile of Op. 19a, Structure 5E-103

the bone, which may have been the result of a muscle injury. Neither porotic hyperostosis nor cribra orbitaia were seen and the nine long bones gave no indications of infection. The mandible showed signs of recent antemortem molar loss and a large abscess was evidenced in the area of the right canine and first premolar. An Akil Impressed vessel was the only artifact recovered.

Generally, such burials are oriented east-west and have vessels inverted over their faces. Tooth development indicated that the individual was a child aged 5-7. Deer tibia placed along the individual’s tibia, and a Spondylus americanus shell pendant signify that the individual was a female according to Landa’s accounts (Tozzer 1941) Cranial deformation was present, but no hands or feet were preserved. The seven preserved long bones indicated that the individual was not suffering from a systematic or local infection and no porotic hyperostosis was detected on the well-preserved portions of the crushed skull. The burial was accompanied by a Sacalum vessel placed on a slateware cajete under the center capstone. These covered the legs and pelvis. The Sacalum vessel cannot be definitively dated to the Terminal Classic; the aberrant Sacalum form suggests that the Late Classic is also a possibility. Burial 8 was located north of Burial 1 and at a lower elevation. The crypt was better constructed than that of Burial 1, with better shaping of individual stones. The crypt was oriented in the usual east to west manner with the head at the eastem end. The individual in Burial 8 was an adult female, as indicated by a broad sciatic notch. Extensive lapping on the sacrum, skull sutures, and the auricular area of the pelvis indicating an age of 30-40. Cranial deformation was present and the one tooth recovered with the burial was filed. The left radius had a nub of bone on the posterior side of the distal portion of

Figure 5.123: North Profile of Op. 20, Structure 5E-105

Burial 4 was under Burial 2, oriented 180 degrees in the opposite direction. The proximity of the two burials and the poor preservation of the bones made separating the individuals difficult, although investigators are certain that grave goods were correctly assigned to individuals. Like Burial 2, Burial 4 was lying extended and supine. It had its femora, pelvis, thorax, and skull in place. The lower arms and legs had been disturbed by the interment of Burial 2. Tooth development indicated that the individual was about fifteen years old at the time of death. Thick and thin bands on the skull across the frontal and the parietals behind the coronal suture may have been caused by a tump line and/or intentional deformation. Grave goods included a Muna Slate bowl inverted over the face of the individual, a large Muna Slate sherd over the chest area, and a shell pendant found around the pelvis. As in Burial 1, these artifacts were taken to mean that the juvenile was a female. Like Burial 2, Burial 4 can be said to securely date to the Terminal Classic because of the form of the Sacalum vessel. Although it is impossible to say that the two individuals were not

Only one level was found, comprised of a reddish-brown soil with accompanying rocks. This level was taken down to bedrock which was 40 cm below the surface in the deepest parts of the unit. Although ceramics were not plentiful in this unit, the seventeen sherds present indicate that the structure was in use only during the Terminal Classic. It appears that structure 6E-121 was occupied during the Terminal Classic by persons of lower economic status. No evidence of any plaster, patio, or other similar investments was found (Figure 5.126). Also, the inhabitants were forced to build on an undesirable, flat spot on the reddish-brown soil. Presumably, if raised areas were available to the Terminal Classic inhabitants, these would have been selected prior to this setting. Instead, the Terminal Classic is the first period in which extensive off-mound occupation has been documented.

Operation 22: Structure GE-122 Structure 6E-122 is a small rectangular foundation brace (measuring 3.5 X 4.5 m) situation on a very low rise 15 m to the southwest of Structure 6E-12. Unlike Terminal Classic foundation brace structures, the walls of Structure 6E-122 were composed of a single line of large worked stones one course high. There appears to be evidence of stone robbing, especially along the eastern and western walls and it is difficult to identify an entrance with any degree of accuracy. Op. 22 consisted of two adjacent 2 X 2 meter units separated by a balk (Figure 5.127). Op. 22a was placed in the interior of the foundation brace in the northwest comer. Op. 22b was placed directly to the north of Op. 22a, although the two units were separated by a thin balk comprising the soil directly beneath the northern wall.

encountered. The gray soil mixed with marl and gravel appears to have been the fill for the low platform on which the foundation brace rested. It was very thin and the uneven bedrock surface was encountered at only 50- 85 cm below the ground surface. This fill was deposited directly upon the bare bedrock. At the interface between lot 1 and lot 2, a piece of a polished plaster floor was recovered. This floor fragment may indicate that a plaster surface once existed at this level. This might explain the quantity of marl in the fill of lot 2. This marl may be the deteriorated remains of this possible surface.

Figure 5.131: North Profile of Op. 25, Structure 6E-109

Figure 5.132: Plan of Structures 6E-120 and 6E-53

Figure 5.136: Stairway of Structure 6E-53

Figure 5.133: Doorway in Structure 6E-120 Figure 5.133: Doorway in Structure 6E-120

Figure 5.133: Doorway in Structure 6E-120

5.133-5.135). The westem side of this platform was too damaged to confirm an access way, but there was a room- like feature discussed below. On Structure 6E-53, there were at least two ground-level doorways on the south and east. The other two sides of this platform are too badly damaged to know if there were doorways. Finally, each of these platforms had a stairway leading from an interior corridor up to the summit (Figure 5.136). We infer that these access ways to the summit were not visible from ground-level outside the platforms and that they had the appearance of trap-doors. The two structures also share a number of other design details throughout their respective interiors (Suhler 1996).

Figure 5.137: North Profile of Structure 6E-120

Figure 5.138: Niches in the North-South Corridor of Structure 6E-120

Figure 5.139: North Profile of Subfloor Test Pit in Structure 6E-120

Figure 5.141: Plan of Cache 5 Figure 5.140: South Profile of Stair of Structure 6E-53

matrix (Figure 5.140). The stairs then received a heavy coat of plaster, giving them the same beige, rounded contours as the rest of the buildings. There was evidence of several episodes of stair replasterings seen at each of the structures. The stairs in both structures were truncated when we found them. On Structure 6E-120 the truncation occurred 12 cm up the fourth riser. On Structure 6E-53, the stairs were truncated at the top of the fifth tread.

The materials from Cache 5 consisted of two ceramic vessels originally placed lip to lip (Figures 5.142-5.143). As found the vessels had slumped to the east. A shallow redware bowl with incised vertical lines on the exterior was placed inverted over a very well made rare polychrome cache ‘bucket’ with flaring walls. These ceramic vessels have been assigned to the Late Formative, but may in fact be Middle Formative. Reanalysis of these two vessels continues, but the general consensus now is that these vessels are Early Nabanche.

mound with the remains of a wall on the north side of the mound. It is located to the southeast of the East Acropolis (6E-1). A 2 X 2 m unit was placed in the approximate center of the structure, in order to better explore the functions of chich mounds. The first level was characterized by brown soil and chich (Figure 5.145). This level continued 45 cm to the top of some rocks scattered about the unit. Ceramics from this lot are primarily Terminal Classic. Under this soil, rock, and gravel mix was dry cobble fill. The fill from this fill was primarily Late Formative. Under this was a light tan, compact fill which was not explored due to time constraints. In the southeast corner of the unit, at one meter below datum, the Terminal Classic crypt capstones of Burial 7 were discovered (Figure 5.146).

Figure 5.145: West Profile of Op. 27, Structure 6E-58 Both Structures 6E-120 and 6E-53 were swept clean before they were terminated. The only material found on the floors was the destruction debris described above. If the structures had been simply abandoned, we might expect to have found deposits of trash and wind-blown dirt on the floor. This was not the case. Our contexts seem comparable to those found in the recent excavations in Late Classic Structure 10L-32 at Copan. There the floors were swept clean prior to the termination of that structure (Andrews and Fash 1992). Further, one of the postholes on the top of Structure 6E-120 was deliberately covered by a rock fitted to its top. This rock occurred at the same level as the highest preserved portion of the southem wall in the corridor leading into the sanctum. This indicates to us that the entire roof was removed to this level, this particular posthole was capped, and then the remaining portion of the structure was filled. Finally, upon excavation we found that all of the wall niches in both Structure 6E-120 and Structure 6E-53 were carefully filled in with a mixture of the marl/gravel matrix and small rocks. This act had to have been performed prior to the filling of the structure corridors.

Operation 29: Off-Mound, Structure GE-120

The upper 10-15 cm of the entire unit was a dark humic soil. Just below the surface an alignment of stones was exposed. These appear to be the southern extent of an apsidal plan foundation brace structure (Structure 4E-45), although the full plan of this building was not exposed. Given the probable Formative date for the boulder lined platform and the identification of Late Formative apsidal structures elsewhere at Yaxuna, there is the strong possibility that this superstructure and the platform were constructed around the same time. Figure 5.149: East Profile of Op. 31, Structure 4E-39

Figure 5.151: North Profile of Op. 32

In the southern half of the building it appears that the western wall south of the doorway broke up as it fell and the southern wall fell south outside the building (Figure 5.156). Our excavations were of the southern half of the building because the fallen westem wall had filled the southem interior with pieces of a size manageable enough to excavate. The resulting size of the excavation unit was a rectangle two meters north-south and 2.5 m east-west. Lourdes Toscano Hernandez has since consolidated the building, although this work has not yet been published. Interior dimensions of the intact structure were approximately 14 m north-south and 2.6 m east-west. The interior walls are of Puuc veneer masonry over a concrete load-bearing core. This concrete core is approximately 80 cm thick and veneer stones today occur only on the interior walls, the exterior veneer stones having fallen away, leaving concrete core exposed. The in situ vault stones are not true Puuc boot-shaped stones. Archetypical boot-shaped vault stones, however, were visible in collapsed sections of the vault, indicating that the building dates from the change from semi-boot shaped to pure boot shaped vault stones.

charcoal in the form of large chunks and burned elotes. Local lore has it that the building was a refuge during the War of the Castes and that it was occupied sporadically up until the time it collapsed. There was no other cultural material associated with the hearth and we believe it dates very late, probably within the last 50 years given the presence of the corn cobs.

Figure 5.161: Incensario Fragment from Cache 7 had spiked appliques, circular openings painted red around their perimeter and a calcareous white wash applied to the outer surface.

shifted from dark gray to reddish brown. Some large irregular rocks were also noted. Over 120 sherds were recovered from 20 to 40 cm. Most of these were eroded beyond identification, but the majority that could be typed were of Late Formative date, all in the Sierra Group. Only two Terminal Classic sherds were identified. Given the likelihood of mixing, these late sherds may have been redeposited at this lower level due to bioturbation. Figure 5.165: West Profile of Op. 37, Structure 5E-83

Figure 5.167: West Profile of Suboperation 38a, Structure 5E-167

Figure 5.170: Dzibical Black on Red Vessel, Burial 11

Figure 5.168: Plan of Capstones of Burial 11

Suboperation 38b, a 2 X 2 m unit, was placed at the southem end of the platform, in order to provide a comparison for the superstructure. No plaster remained on the final surface of the mound. Only dense floor leveling and ballast testified to the existence of a floor. The level was taken down to Floor 2. Ceramics were primarily Terminal Classic. Floor 2 was composed of packed sascab over much of the unit. This floor rested upon mixed fill of earth and stones. Under this, at a depth of 27 cm, bedrock was encountered. Only two to three centimeters of red soil separated bedrock from sub-floor ballast.

Figure 5.172: Plan of Exposed Areas of Structure 6F-3 top of Structure 6F-3/5". Late in the construction of Structure 6F-3/4", this area of the floor was penetrated and Burial 23 reentered prior to the completion of Structure 6F-3/4", larger section of the floor was preserved. This lack of floor in the center of the area bounded by the masonry encasing walls was due to deliberate actions on the pat of the ancient Maya while building Structure 6F-3/4

Figure 5.177: West Profile of Burial 23 Shaft As mentioned in the Structure 6F-3/6" section, the entrance to the Burial 23 tomb chamber was fronted by a U-shaped antechamber which probably used modified Structure 6F-3/6" architecture. The northem and southern walls of the tomb chamber are offset about 20 cm from these respective Structure 6F-3/6" walls (Figure 5.176). The vault spring for the roof of the tomb chamber rests on top of the 82 cm high ledge created by the placement of the northern and southern wall tomb chamber walls. On the western side the antechamber wall contained the entrance to the vaulted tomb chamber (Figure 5.177), therefore, this wall was also the eastern wall of the tomb chamber. The stone functioning as the lintel in the entrance was also the easternmost capstone of the vault, located 1.44 m below the polished surface of the Structure 6F-3/5" floor (Figure 5.178). Below the lintel/capstone there was only the unsealed entrance, the jambs were formed by the eastern edges of the vault, the northern, and the southem tomb chamber walls. There an eastern wall was present only above the level of the capstones.

Figure 5.175: North Profile of Burial 23 Shaft

Figure 5.176: E-W Section of Burial 23 Tomb Chamber

Figure 5.180: Burial 23 Prior to Excavation

Figure 5.178: North Profile of Structure 6F-3/6" in the Burial 23 Tomb Chamber northern and southern walls and is a load-bearing component of the vault. Once these walls were erected, the vault was sprung and corbelled on top of the ledge fumished by the northern and southern tomb walls.

chamber was covered by a layer of large rocks with the area of the skeleton left clear (Figures 5.179-5.180). The archaeology indicates this rock deposit was a product of the later penetration of the Structure 6F-3/5™ sealed floor and the re-entry of the Burial 23 tomb chamber during the construction of Structure 6F-3/4", Figure 5.182: Individual in Burial 23

Figure 5.184: Sak Hunal Jewels Found in the Burial 23 Excavations To the east of the vessel 9, 5, and 6 stack there was a Caucel Trickle of Red jar (vessel # 10). Unfortunately, this vessel (Figure 5.183) was broken during the Early Classic re-entry of the Burial 23 tomb chamber. The presence of this Caucel vessel allows us to establish a rough time frame for Burial 23 and therefore the construction of Structure 6F-3/5". Robles Castellanos (1990) dates the ceramic type Caucel to the Terminal Formative-Protoclassic-Early Classic at Coba, more specifically to the period A.D. 200-350. At Yaxuna we would extend this another 50 or so years, to around A.D. 400. Whatever the exact date, the presence of this locally made vessel in Burial 23 ceramically dates the internment to Early Tzakol II.

Figure 5.185: Carved Clay Head, Burial 23

Figure 5.188: Carved Spondylus Shell, Burial 23 The carved bone piece was found in two places (Figure 5.186); several sections were in the southwest corner and a large piece was in the northwest corner. The portion in the northwest corner was found in association with the remains of a small rodent nest, complete with gnaw marks. Therefore, it is most probable that the entire artifact was originally placed in the southwest comer of the tomb chamber. Due to the rodent taphonomy suffered by this artifact we are left with a less than complete specimen. The piece is a carved section of long bone; whether human or not will have to await the result of DNA testing, as no distinguishing characteristics remain. The top of the bone appears intact but how much is missing below the lower break is unclear.

Portions of the headdress were found below the secondary marl deposit; unfortunately, there were no mat fibers preserved in the area of the headdress to indicate its position relative to the mat. Surviving depictions of Maya elite have shown that headdresses were very elaborate, composite constructions made up of a diversity of materials. Presumably the deer bones, antlers, and manatee bones found in situ composed the rigid frame of the headdress and the more fragile portions were not preserved.

Figure 5.193: Artifacts in Possible Bundle, Burial 2:

building indicates it was a large multi-terraced pyramidal structure with a summit plaza, covering a series of subterranean corridors (Figures 5.194-5.195); we were able to explore only the southern portion of these corridors during our time at Structure 6F-3. Lacking anything more than a test pit into the topmost architecture, its base on the northern section of the summit plaza, we cannot yet integrate the unknown form of the apical architecture into our current reconstruction of Structure 6F-3. From the level of the summit plaza down, however, we were able to put together the architectural sequencing for the building. As it stands now, the central portion of the southem face of Structure 6F-4/4" at the terrace level below the summit plaza shows no evidence of a grand or central staircase. A small excavation in front of this area, beneath Late-Terminal Classic Stair B, revealed only an unadorned vertical masonry face. This central area was likely a series of terraces ascending from the plaza floor or perhaps a decorated facade.

Figure 5.197: South Profile of Doorway Behind Main Stairway, Structure 6F-3 Figure 5.196: Isometric Drawing of Structure 6F-3-3™

Figure 5.198: North Profile of Doorway Behind Main Stairway, Structure 6F-3

Figure 5.200: Isometric Drawing of Structure 6F-3-2™

Figure 5.202: Isometric Drawing of Structure 6F-3-1*

Figure 5.203: Stone Figure Found on Stair A

Figure 5.205: Fragmentary Censer from Burial 19

Figure 5.207: Detail of Chen Mul Incensario Head vaults were constructed on well-ballasted springs. The stones of the springs were also built into the ballast in the same fashion as the vault courses themselves. The placement of the long axis of the vault and spring stones into the surrounding ballast yielded a tenoned effect, further reinforcing the vault. In our opinion, if all essential structural components were left in place, the vaults of such sturdy architecture should have been found at least partially, if not totally, intact. However, we found these roofs neither totally nor partially intact, they were entirely collapsed into the interior of their respective rooms and passages. Part of the reason for this uniform state of collapse is visible in the southern doorway. Originally the top of this 88 cm wide doorway was spanned by either three or four stone lintels. Only one lintel was left in situ. This lintel is ovoid in cross section; 18 X 40 cm and over a meter in length. We think the three missing lintels were deliberately pulled out, in order to collapse the vaults of both the outer vaulted passage and room. These vaults were collapsed after the internment of Burial 19.

From its western edge, the uppermost western terrace of Structure 6F-4/5" extended one meter to the east where it then stepped up to an unknown distance. Only the first one to two courses of this terrace step were preserved, the bulk of what is presumed to have been the summit to the east of the step-up had been removed. At the present time there is no way of knowing whether this destruction represents a penetration to place a tomb or large terminal cache into the center of Structure 6F-4/5" prior to its internment by Structure 6F-4/4" or is merely the result of the preparatory destruction necessary to successfully ballast the covering 6F-4/4". The removal of the architecture to the east of the western upper terrace edge also makes it impossible to tell if the summit of Structure 6F-4/5" was a flat-topped mound or whether it did, in fact, originally have a masonry superstructure.

Figure 5.214: Room 2, Subfloor Cut, Plan View Figure 5.213: East Profile Showing Room 1 Subfloor Test, Structure 6F--

Figure 5.215: Plan and Profile of Burial 24

length of the westem side of the building (range structure). The summit superstructure focus of the earlier buildings was gone, replaced by a series of westem terraces built above the roof/terrace of the basal rooms. The uppermost of these western terraces (Terrace Level 5) supported two sloped, masonry walls which may have displayed decorated stucco facades. If such facades existed, then this area became the visual focus of Structure 6F-4/3", Figure 5.218: West Side of Structure 6F-4

Figure 5.219: Western J uncture Between Structures 6F-4 and 6F-68

Figure 5.221: Profile of Terrace Level 4, Structure 6F-4

Figure 5.224: Burial 24 Showing Placement of “La Mufieca”

Figure 5.225: Burial 24 Prior to Excavation Following the buming, the skeleton was scattered deliberately and/or disturbed by the entry and placement of the other articulated and fresh victims. Many fragments of burned human bone assigned to Burial 24- 14 were found distributed randomly distributed about the packed marl surface which formed the floor. Stratigraphically these bumed bone fragments always underlay the later individuals and therefore preceded the rest of the deposit. There were several artifacts which probably pertain to Burial 24-14; these include several burned and blackened greenstone beads and another burned piece of greenstone carved into the likeness of a quetzal (Figure 5.226).

This then is the ritual context into which the proposed bundle represented by Burial 24-14 was introduced. If this was the case, then the specific purpose of the Burial 24 ceremony was directed towards eradicating one of the most sacred Maya relationships; that between the ruler and his ancestors: or, perhaps even more pointedly, between the ruler and a venerated ancestor.

Based on this information, we believe the protagonists burned and scattered a sacred ancestor bundle in order to desecrate the space inside the tomb chamber. The buming of an ancestor bundle was a grave act for the Maya. Scenes depicted on ceramic vessels show what appear to represent ancestor bundles on display in various depictions of royal Maya life. The need for access to selected departed predecessors is consistent with the Maya necessity for communication with apotheosized ancestors in the otherworld. Also it appears from the burgeoning body of evidence concerning the Maya view of ancestors and bones that a requirement of otherworld communication was that it be undertaken in close proximity to the actual bones themselves: the re-entry of Burial 23 is a good example of such communication and its necessities.

Figure 5.231: Stingray Spine, Burial 24 Figure 5.230: Plan of Upper Level of Burial 24

A crushed skull was most likely the cause of death. Given the absence of re-entry of the tomb chamber, there was no opportunity for anyone to crush the skull after it had grown softer with decay. Additionally there was no evidence of rock fall from the ceiling or wall which could have caused a crushed skull. On the other hand, if Burial 24-2 was originally interred with a crushed skull, this trauma would have resulted in accelerated decomposition of the damaged area and produced the condition encountered during excavation. The teeth were not inlaid or filed although one maxillary second incisor had a small notch in the center of the occlusal edge. This may have been the result of a particular use or the beginning of a filing pattern.

Burial 24-11 was the last of the first three articulated individuals to have been placed in the tomb. The body was lying on its back with the tibia flexed back and to the left side under the femora and the knees were touching the pelvis of Burial 24-7, located directly to the north. The body was placed against the wall of the tomb in such a way that the skull rolled down between the left arm and the south wall as the ligaments released. All in all the position of the body gives some indication that it may have been placed in a wrapped or semi-bundled state.

The pelvis indicates this was a female (the pubis and the sciatic notch were both present.) The teeth gave an age of 20-25, the pubic synthesis and age of 20-21. The union of the ischial tuberosity was in its final stages which would give an age of <23 and the sutures of the skull had not started to close. Therefore, a composite age was set at 20-25.

Figure 5.237: Greenstone from Possible Crown Associated with Burial 24-6

Figure 5.238: Bloodletter, Awl, or Hair Pin Depicting a Dancing Spider Monkey, Burial 24-6

Figure 5.240: Shell Pendant Associated with Burial 24-6 Figure 5.239: Bone Tube Associated with Burial 24-6

Figure 5.242: Vessel 4, Burial 24 There were three other ceramic vessels lying underneath Burial 24-6. In our opinion the lack of damage to all but one of these vessels indicates they were interred in conjunction with Burial 24-6 rather than being laid during the preparation of the tomb chamber prior to the first body’s placement in the tomb chamber. Two of these

The figurine itself is clearly female and is standing with hands crossed over the midriff. The eyes are coffee bean shaped and painted, along with the eyebrows, while the nose, lips, and teeth are realistically modeled. The cheeks are covered by red and black stepped lines and she is wearing some type of headdress, tiara, or crown. This headpiece is also decorated in red and black geometric designs with red earflares on either side. Each shoulder has a scroll type design painted in black. There are red and black bands around the ankles and the waist.

Burial 24-3, a small child, was located in the northern part of the tomb with the skull to the west slightly above Burial 24-5. The legs were above those of Burial 24-2 and under those of Burial 24-4. This child, like others in Burial 24, did not appear to have been placed in any particular position, but rather, just thrown in to lie as it landed. The bones had also been affected by the rocks that had fallen into the north end and were fragmentary and eroded.

cribra orbitalia. There were three caries on 15 erupted teeth. The mandibular canine had a_ single macrohypoplasia at the midpoint of the enamel. The skull was deformed culturally. The frontal bone was flattened but the occipital was unaffected by this process. The teeth were neither filed nor inlaid. No artifactual material was found associated with this skeletal material. Yet it is possible that some items from this area which have been assigned to other bodies may have originally belonged to Burial 24-4. Burial 24-4 represents a child found in the northeast corner of the Burial 24 tomb chamber. As with other burials from this area, the body did not appear to have been carefully placed. Rather the body appears to have been dropped from the ledge immediately above it. This child was lying partially under Burial 24-1 and on top of the legs of Burial 24-2 and Burial 24-3. Due to the size and ages of Burial 24-2 and Burial 24-4 and their location, it is possible that some bones assigned to one may belong to the other. The quality of the preservation of this burial was not good; bones were fragmentary and eroded. The dental age was calculated at 10-12 years. The length of a femur was also consistent with an age of 11. The three parts of the pelves may have started to unite but, if so, that process was in the early stages. This also supports an age of 10-12 years.

The preservation of the bone from this skeleton was not as good as most of the other bone from Burial 24. The skeleton was not buried as deeply and two large rocks had fallen from the wall and come to rest against the north wall on top of the Burial 24-1 torso. Therefore, some bones were fragmentary and some surfaces eroded. complete union of the iliac crest of the pelvis. There was no infection on the four long bones with surfaces sufficiently preserved to make that observation. There was no porotic hyperostosis and no cribra orbitalia in the one orbit present. No trauma was visible and 32 erupted teeth were present but there were no caries or macrohypoplasias. There was no arthritis visible. The skull had been culturally deformed with the frontal bone flattened with a 45 degree recurve on the superior portion. It was not possible to know if the occipital bone had been affected. The teeth were not filed or inlaid.

Figure 5.247: Anthropomorphic Celt, Cache 2, Structure 6F-4

Figure 5.249: Plan of Cache 2, Level 1 After the removal of the floor, a 20-40 cm thick, uneven, gray marl layer was laid down in this area (Figure 5.245). The laying of this marl deposit was accomplished in at least two stages. Following the deposition and packing of the first 20 cm a 10 cm D-shaped pit was cut into it approximately a meter west of the face of the far eastern wall (Figure 5.246). This shallow pit was the repository for a black painted vessel of the type Maxcanu Buff: Tacopate, an Early Classic ceramic type whose locus of greatest concentration is westem Y ucatecan-eastern Campeche, centered around the area of Oxkintok and Chunchucmil. This vessel, given the designation cache 2, was found to contain an anthropomorphic celt or axe of volcanic stone (Figure 5.247), perhaps basalt or andesite, and over 60 greenstone beads (Figure 5.248), earflares, and pendants as well as two Spondylus ear-flares. As we excavated cache 2, it became readily apparent the ornaments were still articulated and it was therefore possible to separate the various spatial arrangements of the artifacts into their original components (Figures 5.249-5.250). We believe this set of jewelry represented the royal insignia of kingship and belonged to the central occupant (Burial 24-7) of Burial 24.

Figure 5.252: Greenstone Diadems in Cache 2

Burial 20 was poorly preserved but articulated, with no evidence of disturbance (Figure 5.259). The absence of a crypt immediately sets this burial apart from later Terminal Classic burials. The cut was sealed by a 10 cm thick marl plug rather than the slab-like capstones used during Yaxuna IV. Burials without crypts have been found associated with Arena Rojo ceramic vessels and dated to Y axuna III throughout the site. Another unusual aspect of Burial 20 was a lack of material remains with the body. The only grave good encountered was a segment of deer bone near the left shoulder. This lack of grave goods contrasts sharply with the usual mortuary pattern at Yaxuna. Even the burials found in the unmounded superstructure foundation braces have all been accompanied by at least one ceramic vessel. We believe the lack of a formal crypt and grave goods in Burial 20, as well as its covering by a floor sequence using construction techniques indicative of other Y axuna III constructions at Structure 6F-4, date this deposit to this period.

Figure 5.260: Isometric Drawing of Structure 6F-4-1"

Figure 5.261: Masonry Box, Structure 6F-4-1"

associated with terminations at Yaxuna and other Maya centers. Below this marl deposit, laying on Terrace Level 4, we found a smashed, whole ceramic vessel. This vessel has been identified as Balantun Red on Cream, a Sotuta ceramic type and, therefore, associated with Chichen Itza. The vessel was found scattered along a one meter long strip which began approximately two meters south of the south face of the masonry box. Figure 5.262: Terrace Levels 3 and 4, Structure 6F-4-1"

These two structures are low platforms located to the immediate south of Structure 6F-68. One or possibly both were built during Y axuna IVb for the express purpose of terminating Structure 6F-68 and any other Yaxuna IVa structures in this area of the North Acropolis. Both structures are built atop a raised portion of the plaza south of Structure 6F-68. Excavation into this raised plaza level within its northwest corner indicated that it was constructed sometime during Yaxuna IVa after the construction of Structure 6F-68. This area measured approximately 27 m east-west by 22 m north-south and effectively raised this portion of the southeast plaza as much as one meter in height to a level even with the basal platform of Structure 6F-68. It was penned in along the west side by two parallel construction walls, each composed of roughly shaped, somewhat irregular stones, which were separated by about one meter (Figure 5.265). The westernmost wall was aligned with the western edge of the Structure 6F-68 basal platform.

of a double course of rectangular limestone blocks laid without any visible chinking. There was no evidence of a superstructure foundation brace or walls on the surface of the platform retaining wall; the structure appears to have been built and used as a flat-topped platform. Structure 6F-7

Figure 5.267: West Profile of Structure 6F-7, Op. 40b recovered we think they indicate that intensive ritual feasting was a component of the conquest and termination of the North Acropolis. This is in contrast to a more traditional interpretation which would view Structure 6F-7 as a kitchen or food preparation area.

Figure 5.266: West Profile of Structure 6F-7, Op. 40a

below the level of the floor. Large rough rocks were found within this area, although not to the density typical of dry core fill. A surface of evenly placed stones was encountered at a depth of 50 cm. Resting on this surface and recovered within the loose soil above it were 129 sherds, several of which were very large in size and many of which appeared bumed. For the most part, the ceramics were found on edge and at various angles other than horizontal, that is, not flat-bedded as seen elsewhere on the terrace south of Structure 6F-68. These ceramics represented identical types to those found within the Structure 6F-72 is interpreted as the remains of a termination altar on a very low, roughly constructed platform. The altar itself occupied the southwest quadrant of Structure 6F-72, which contained a prepared plaster floor that was only partially preserved. Despite the overall poor preservation of the plaster flooring within the southwest quadrant of the structure, there was evidence to suggest that this portion of the building was cut into in antiquity. Immediately west and north of intact sections of plaster floor, a matrix of loose soil was encountered that extended to a depth of about 50 cm

Figure 5.269: Chert Biface from Structure 6F-72

Figure 5.271: North Profile of Structure 6F-7, Op. 40a in association with polychrome sherds. These associations date the Floor 1 sequence and the Floor 2/foundation brace architecture to the Early Classic.

Operation 78: Structure GF-68 permit us to search for the base of this feature or to excavate into this earlier, albeit truncated, surface. Y et evidence from other excavations at the North Acropolis leads us to believe that it probably dates to the Early Classic.

6F-68 terrace retaining wall was also found in the excavation at the northeast corner of Structure 6F-7. This southem retaining wall cornered two meters west of the western edge of Structure 6F-68 and then ran north until it intersected with the south face of the Structure 6F-4/2™ main western staircase. This same sequence was again visible in the elevation of the western side of the Structure 6F-68 terrace retaining wall.

The interior of the building showed that the ancient Maya masons built Structure 6F-68 with a combination of roughly dressed blocks on interior walls and more traditional Puuc techniques on and above the level of the soffit (Figures 5.274-5.275). Load bearing masonry walls were also used in the two dividing walls which separated the 20.5 m internal length of Structure 6F-68 into its three rooms. These walls were footed on the floor and followed closely the contours of the perimeter walls. Evidence indicates these two dividing walls also functioned as load bearing surfaces for the vault. architectural design on the southern, eastern, and western exteriors of the range structure were typical of the Puuc style. The transition between the tabular, load-bearing blocks in plaster grouting with some chinking which were used throughout the interior of the building and what would be termed Puuc masonry techniques takes place at the jambs and continues onto the preserved exterior of Structure 6F-68. The contrast between the two types of masonry architecture is quite apparent on the jambs of the entrances where they occur side by side (Figure 5.276). From the jambs out, the masons used the technique of carefully shaped veneer stones and a concrete, load- bearing, core. The entire exterior of this structure was decorated with a facade that falls well within the conventions of Puuc architecture (Pollock 1980).

Figure 5.277: Elements of the Upper Facade of Structure 6F-68 Found in the Collapse

bas-reliefs at satellite sites to the north, south and east (Greene Robertson 1986). While Greene Robertson suggested that this local style predated Chichén Itza and pertained to the Late Classic, we have proposed that it is contemporary with Chichén Itza and dates to the Terminal Classic. Current information indicates that our differences are more semantic than real: the overlap between Sotuta and Cehpech is in reality total and the beginnings of both are found in the Late Classic.

Figure 5.280: Basal Facade of the Eastern Half of the Southern Side of Structure 6F-68 Figure 5.279: Basal Facade of the Eastern Side of Structure 6F-68

Figure 5.181: Basal Facade of the Western Half of the Southem Side of Structure 6F-68

Figure 5.283: Flayed Face, Basal Facade, Structure 6F-68

Figure 5.284: Seated Lord, Basal Facade, Structure 6F-68

standard discussed above. He holds the same position with his arms as does the lord to the east of the principal individual. The individual farthest to the west, however, is unique in a number of ways. First, this individual is posed differently with left arm down to the side and right arm across the lap (Figure 5.286). He wears a necklace composed of circular beads and a loincloth instead of belt and wristbands as the others do. This little lord has a miniature glyph panel next to his face, in precisely the location of larger panels from satellite sites in the Y axuna area. On the one intact larger-scale panel we have documented, Mopila Monument 1, the text pertains to the accession of the individual to the status of saj, a variant of sajal, which is an elite status used elsewhere in the northern lowlands at the site of X calumkin and otherwise well known from the Usumacinta River sites of the southem lowlands. The miniature version of a glyph panel at Yaxuna could only have contained painted glyphs if it ever actually contained a written message. Figure 5.286: Seated Lord with Glyph Panel, Basal Facade, Structure 6F-68

Room 1 Figure 5.287: Standing Lord with Ball or Severed Head, Basal Facade, Structure 6F-68

In Room 2 there were multiple remains of termination rituals. The first indication was in the northwest comer where we found a termination ritual placed on top of vault collapse 1.4 m above the floor. This deposit consisted of a broken Piste Striated vessel and a large amount of charcoal. The presence of the vessel against the north wall and beneath the soffit, broken yet restricted to a very discrete area, indicates it was deliberately placed and could not have fallen from the roof. Therefore we believe the charcoal was in the vessel when it was placed on a pause in the partially collapsed roof. Following this placement additional fill was placed on top and the vessel broke, releasing the charcoal. This deposit indicates termination rituals were complicated events with many separate stages and pauses.

Figure 5.289: Plan of Room 3, Structure 6F-68 Figure 5.290: Burial 25, Looking East

of the building. This suggests their transportation to these areas by human behavior rather than simple gravity or any other natural process. In the interiors of all three rooms we discovered vault capstones laying directly on the surface of the floors or immediately on top of termination layers, this indicates that the collapse of the building occurred before any appreciable amount of debris had accumulated on the surface of the floor. That is, the collapse of the vault occurred in concert with the cessation of use of the building. This is the same situation as found in the outer vaulted passage and chamber of Structure 6F-3/1%. In Room 3 there were a line of vault stones running east- west down the length of the desecrated and refilled Burial 25. Either these stones fell en masse at this precise location or, more probably, they were removed from the roof during the preparations for its collapse and placed on top of the backfill. Adding to the argument for this latter explanation was the presence of large amounts of smashed ceramics scattered on top of these vault stones and on out the door of Room 3.

In 1994 and 1995 we cleared to the top of the larger termination deposit in front of Structure 6F-68 along a 16.5 m long by approximately 2-3 m wide strip. Allowing for the narrow portion excavated in 1992 the northern edge of this area was 1.5 m and the southern edge 3.5-4.5 m south of the base of Structure 6F-68. Excavation of this complicated deposit during the 1996 field season revealed a number of artifacts, including obsidian blades and smashed ceramics, underneath the collapsed architecture. This mixture of collapse and termination deposit was mapped in concert with excavation; identifiable architectural elements including soffit stones, split- column fragments, chunks of stucco, and veneer stones, both plain and carved with images were noted (Figure 5.292). Also noted were pila fragments. Figure 5.292: Kin Symbol Found in Eastern Collapse of Structure 6F-68

Figure 5.293: Notable Concentrations of Terminal Classic Ceramics in and Around Structure 6F-68

Figure 5.294: West Profile of Op. 41, Structure 6F-44

measures 28 X 36 m and the remains of the only stairway were noted along its eastern edge. The extant foundation brace of Structure 4E-20 is rectangular in form with an internal east-west partition in its northem end. Its construction consists of a single course double wall line measuring 6 X 11 m suggesting a Terminal Classic date. Across the 4E-19 platform to the east, two roughly rectangular foundation braces are located. Both of these structures, Structure 4E-21 and Structure 4E-22 were also tested. All three structures appear to face the small interior platform plaza space and can be considered a spatially distinct group. Figure 5.296: Burial 13 Capstones, Structure 4E-20

Figure 5.299: North Profile of Op. 44, Structure 4E-22 notice that the floor had been pierced in this area for the construction of the Terminal Classic crypt. In fact, the preservation of Floor 2 may have been greatly reduced by this activity. After the burial was excavated, level 2 continued in the northern half of the unit.

At 96 cm, dry core fill was exposed. Only 48 sherds were recovered. They suggest an Early Classic (most likely Y axuna Ila) date. Although the matrix had been heavily disturbed by the construction of the Burial 13 crypt, no Late or Terminal Classic ceramics were recovered. This strongly suggests that the original interment was dedicatory (placed prior to the construction of Structure 4E-20-1"). If Structure 4E-20-1" had been built and functioning for any length of time, we would suspect that

other structures is Structure 5E-26, a five meter high pyramidal mound in line directly with Saché 5. This saché links Structure 5E-26 to Structure 4E-3 going past the 5E-52 Group. Excavations at Structure 4E-3 revealed Y axuna Ila and III material without penetrating extant architecture. Two other large mounds define the eastern and western edges of the 5E-30 plaza and a few small rectangular foundation braces were noted during mapping. These braces were not tested, but most likely date to the later phases of Yaxuna’s occupation. Figure 5.303: North Face of Structure 5E-50

The 5E-30 Group was considered an important locus for testing the Late Formative and Early Classic occupations at Y axuna due to its location in the cruciform site plan (Stanton and Freidel 2005) and its proximity to the 5E-52 elite residential group. Two large connected units were placed on the northern face of Structure 5E-30 to reveal architectural features. Neither of these units penetrated architectural features and both were excavated as one lot and level.

The ceramics recovered from level 3 indicate a Y axuna Ib or Ila date. As the other excavations in this group suggest and Early Classic date for this initial construction, the latter date is favored. No other artifacts were recovered and a red paleosol was exposed approximately 40 cm below the level of Floor 2. Unlike the paleosol exposed in Op. 44, there was no evidence of midden material below the initial construction of Structure 4E-21. Only four sherds were recovered. This material suggests a Late Formative date for the ground surface prior to the construction of the basal platform corroborating data from Op. 44. No other artifacts were recovered. Bedrock was exposed at 1.25 m.

Figure 5.305: West Profile of Op. 48, Structure 6F-8

Figure 5.306: South Profile of Op. 48, Structure 6F-8 During the next construction phase, the area to the south of the stripped terrace face was filled with large cobble dry core fill to the level of Floor 3. This dry core fill and Floor 3, to the face of the terrace step-up was then covered by a five centimeter layer of gravel sub-floor ballast and another five centimeter of hard, polished plaster, red painted floor. Field analysis of the ceramics from the sub-floor fill also assigns Floor 2 to the Y axuna Ila/b ceramic period.

Figure 5.308: East Profile, Op. 49, Structure 5F-49

Figure 5.310: Scribe Vessel Found in Structure 5F-49 Both structures suffered severe damage due to erosion and the slumping of the structure walls down the slope of the mound. Most of the western foundation brace in the structure in which this unit was placed was destroyed. Thus, the original dimensions of the superstructure are difficult to estimate. Both superstructures face a large elevated patio area to the east. This patio is bounded by another single course foundation brace or terrace wall. Although there are clearly two structures and a basal platform comprising this group, the entire complex has been designated a single structure number.

As the excavation commenced around the foundation brace a matrix of brown soil and chich was exposed throughout much of the unit. No evidence of a plastered surface remained, but given the indications for a subfloor ballast at an optimal level for a floor, one can be assumed to have once existed and has since deteriorated (Floor 1). The ceramics associated with this construction were Terminal Classic. Below the brown soil and chich a lighter soil with the remains of a fragmented plaster floor (Floor 2) was exposed. This floor was not well preserved and did not seal the lower levels. Just below the floor a cache of deer bone and shell was recovered in a matrix of brown soil and various sized stones. At approximately 60 cm, an intrusive Terminal Classic crypt (Burial 11) containing an adult male and various elements of several other individuals was encountered (Figure 5.311). The crypt itself was built against a substructure and contained a bone pectoral over the chest, as well as a sectioned metapodial awl. A Ticul Thin Slate cylinder vase was placed above the right leg and a tripod cajete was placed inverted over the face. As the crypt was constructed, the builders made fortuitous use of the retaining wall of Structure 5F-49-2" In sum, multiple Terminal Classic floors were constructed over an earlier substructure.

Although the ceramics from level 2 are from a fill context and may incorporate earlier material, no diagnostics of the latter portion of the Late Formative were noted such as Polvero Black or X anaba Red. The Middle Formative material suggests that there was a nearby Middle Formative occupation or that Structure 4F-29 was built during the latter phase of the Middle Formative or the early phase of the Late Formative. Given the possible existence of a transitional Middle/Late Formative apsidal foundation brace in the lower levels of Op. 14e, the possibility that these structures may date to the earliest phases of Yaxuna’s occupation may be entertained. Clearly, more investigation is needed to fully explore the apsidal structure plan at Y axuna.

exposed at 57 cm. This burial was Terminal Classic in date and contained the remains of an extended infant. A Y okat olla (Figure 5.316) and a Sacalum Tripod cajete were also recovered with the burial. This crypt pierced Floor 3 and may date to the construction of either Floor 1 or Floor 2. At the same level as the top of the crypt, the remains of another floor (Floor 4) were exposed in the southem portion of the unit. The unit was continued only in the south as to not impact the in situ crypt. Figure 5.315: East Profile, Op. 69, Structure 6F-73

Figure 5.317: Plan, Op. 70, Structure 6F-13

of stones one course high that incorporate reused veneer and column drums. A 1.2 X 4 m bench runs along the inside of the wall in the northeast quarter of the structure. Op. 71 involved two test units. The first of these was a 1 X 1 m excavation into the bench, in order to discover the relationship between the feature and 6F-43. The second, a 2 X 2 m unit, was placed in the northwest comer of the building.

Figure 5.319: Plan, Op. 71, Structure 6F-43

Figure 5.320: East Profile, Op. 71, Structure 6F-43

that age at death was 30-35. Neither traces of porotic hyperostosis nor cribra orbitalia were detected. The skull had been deformed using a binding to emphasize the parietal area. No teeth were found with Burial 16. One thin shell bead was the only artifact found associated with the burial. Cranial bones and fingers found at the foot of the crypt may be due to the same disturbance that damaged the crypt, or might be parts of another individual if the crypt were reused.

continues up or around the large pyramidal structures as was seen by researchers at the site of Dos Pilas (Demarest 1997). Y et our method of defining the wall did not permit the determination of this possibility, since such a construction would most likely be buried beneath heavy building collapse.

Figure 5.324: Plan of Northwest Section of the Perimeter W all

placed so that a gap is left between them usually about 15-20 cm thick. This gap we found filled with soil and chich, which would have acted as chinking to fill the gaps between the stone supports and wood. layout of the interior and exterior stones seem to suggest that they were merely supports. These walls are characterized by large stones that are faced on the outside but not the inside. The interior and exterior stones are Figure 5.325: Plan of East Section of the Perimeter Wall

Figure A.1: Map of Y axuna Showing the Locations Where Faunal Material was Recovered

Figure A.2: Taxonomic Profile of the Recovered Fauna (NISP)

rice rat (Peromyscus sp.], kangaroo rat [Dipodomys ordii]), and one rabbit (cottontail rabbit [Sylvilagus floridanus]). The three opossum species constitute common inhabitants of the peninsula’s primary and secondary forests (Reid 1997:43, 45, 47-48). The armadillo is widespread throughout the Yucatan peninsula (Reid 1997:60). Regarding Yaxunda’s bats, one species for each of the three major families and subfamilies of the Maya area could be identified. The long-tongued bat, widespread and abundant in secondary forest, represents the taxonomic subfamily of the nectar- feeding bats (Glossophaginae) (Reid 1997:104, 106). The Jamaican fruit-eating bat, also abundant and widespread throughout the Maya area, constitutes the largest member of the subfamily of the tailless bats (Stenodermatinae) (Reid 1997:118, 124), while the small mouse-eared bat species identified, probably Myotis keaysi, represents a common inhabitant of secondary forests the family of the plain-nosed bats (Vespertilionidae) (Reid 1997:146, 152). The rodents and rabbit give similar ecological information, reflecting secondary dry forests as habitat requirements (Reid 1997). The dog bones recovered at Y axuna indicate that only type of domestic dog found at the site, according to morphology and size, was the short-faced modern and common rural dog in Yucatan. No specimens of the dwarf dog (tlalchichi) or the hairless dog (xolotlizcuintli) were encountered (see osteological and morphological definitions for Prehispanic dog types in Valadez 1994, 2000, 2003:125-129), although specimens of these dog types were found at Prehispanic sites nearby (Gotz 2008a). As the domestic dog specimens constitute the only clearly domestic fauna of the sample, the remaining fauna was defined as “wild”. The lack of other clearly domestic types at Yaxuna does not mule out the possibility that some other animals were not held captive or even tamed at some point. Yet these other possible situations cover animals of natural and non-domestic origin’.

behavior. It is highly improbable that these animals represent natural intrusions. The crypt was sealed the faunal remains found in association with the floor was covered with the collapse of the vault of the passageway, possibly during the Late Postclassic. The faunal specimens associated with Burial 19 exhibit a series of features that differ from other contexts described in this report. Their deposition in and around the crypt could symbolize a connection with the deceased or the causes of his death, reflecting some form of ritual

Table A.3: The Faunal Remains Found in Association with Burial 19

Table A.4: Faunal Specimens from Structure 6F-9

The majority of the specimens found in the structure are teeth from brocket deer (Mazama sp., n= 8), white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari, n= 9), and jaguar (Panthera onca, n= 1). Together, these specimens appear to include at least one mandible and one maxilla from a brocket deer, and two peccary mandibles. As no fragments from the neurocranium or postcranial skeleton of the mentioned taxa were found, the teeth and mandible/maxilla fragments represent probably an intentional deposit of these body elements in the structure, especially because one mandible fragment from a brocket deer shows deep cut marks on the interior side. The cut marks could indicate the defleshing of this element, or being the result of the extraction of the animal’s tongue after having removed its head (see Binford 1981:100-101). 2008). While a convincing interpretation of the faunal finds from Structure 6F-37 cannot be made at this moment, and a detailed analysis of comparable archaeological contexts will be needed in the future, the sole occurrence of cranial elements of animals such as the brocket deer seems to support the interpretation that this structure was a hunting shrine.

Appendix I: The Faunal Materials from Yaxuna, Yucatan, Mexico

Table A.7: Faunal Specimens from Structure 6F-73

Table A.8: Summary of the Fauna Used for Food at Y axuna

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