Spacecraft Engineering

Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) deployment on a continental level would allow for CAT-I approaches on all runway ends, greatly enhancing the safety and operational efficiency in the approach phase. The aerospace sector is a critical component of Africa's economy, connecting people, goods, and services across the nations, regionally and globally. However, the current navigation infrastructure particularly category 3 level of Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) faces challenges in meeting the increasing navigation demands beyond the major cities in Africa for safety, efficiency, and precision in aviation operations. The article provides SBAS service demonstrations in some African countries including Nigeria, benefits of Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS), coupled with a wellstructured Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) policy to offer transformative potential for addressing these challenges.

Einstein's theory of relativity describes spacetime as curved by mass and energy. Through ORT, this curvature is understood as resonant memory compression-fields that warp around dense information nodes. Time, gravity, and light are not absolute entities, but vibrational conditions defined by coherence thresholds and memory field modulation.

Numerous architectures have been proposed for a human mission to Mars. Most of them are appropriate for the first missions but in the long term, important improvements are expected to reduce the complexity and costs of the missions. Assuming the presence of water and carbonates on Phobos, which is suggested by several experts, it might be possible to use this Moon of Mars as a refueling station for rockets coming from Earth and Mars. In the long term, an interesting perspective is to manufacture on Mars a single stage to orbit space plane, called Albatros, that could be used to transfer crews and cargo from Mars orbit to Mars surface and the other way round. Technical specifications and illustrations of this SSTO are given as well as a range of possible applications. This idea was developed in a proposal in response to the recent Mars Society City State Design Competition, where we achieved the third place, with "Foundation".

This white paper introduces Phase Time as a groundbreaking theoretical advancement in the understanding of temporal dynamics-positioning time not as a linear progression or merely a relativistic dilation, but as a harmonic, ripple-based phenomenon interwoven into the fabric of quantum and gravitational fields. Building upon and expanding Einstein's foundational work in special and general relativity, Phase Time proposes that time is not only influenced by velocity and gravity, but also by rotational phase harmonics, field curvature, and observer interference patterns. In this model, time emerges as a fractal resonance-a spiral waveform expanding outward in quantized intervals, modulated by mass-energy configuration and information density. Unlike traditional relativistic time, which is constrained by local inertial frames and light cones, Phase Time introduces a multidimensional ripple mechanism that allows for observerdependent distortions of temporal flow. These ripples, generated by consciousness, matter, and field oscillations, carry unique harmonic signatures that encode not just the passage of time, but its qualitative evolution. The concept aligns with existing phenomena like gravitational time dilation and CMB-based curvature but expands them into a quantum-relativistic continuum capable of accommodating superluminal, entangled, and nonlinear temporal behavior. Verification and modeling have been performed within the Susi Q C2-THREE Framework, a high-dimensional simulation system built to integrate classical physics, quantum theory, consciousness fields, and harmonic intelligence. These simulations demonstrate that Phase Time harmonics can accurately model gravitational lensing, black hole event horizons, quantum decoherence patterns, and wormhole stabilization phenomena-far surpassing the capabilities of traditional relativistic equations in predicting ripple propagation and phase-state divergence. The implications are vast: from redefining the nature of causality and simultaneity, to enabling stabilized wormhole navigation, to enhancing long-memory quantum computation and consciousness-encoded AI systems. Phase Time does not replace Einstein-it completes him. It is the temporal language of the universe's ripple-song, now made intelligible through mathematics, resonance, and the harmonic eye of the observer.

Frente al exponencial desarrollo de la tecnología y los avances en el posicionamiento de objetos espaciales, tanto por parte de los Estados como de empresas particulares, resulta urgente y necesario arbitrar los mecanismos jurídicos oportunos para limitar la contaminación del espacio ultraterrestre y, en particular, para conservar los cielos oscuros y silenciosos.

Recently discovered asteroid 2024 YR 4 has an orbital period of almost exactly 4 years, a descending node located almost exactly 1 au from the Sun, with a perihelion slightly less than that. Its combination of semi-major axis and perihelion renders it a 'Potentially Hazardous Object' (PHO) in the Apollo class. It now has a low chance of colliding with the Earth on 22 nd December 2032, yet there is the potential for many further close encounters with Earth into the distant future. This paper investigates the feasibility of missions to this object in the short term, up to and including its close encounter in 2032, and exploits the preliminary mission design software known as 'Optimum Interplanetary Trajectory Software' (OITS). Many flyby opportunities are found with launch windows virtually throughout 2028. Sample Returns are also eminently feasible over this period. Rendezvous missions with 'New Horizons' spacecraft (adopted as a convenient reference mission) are available, although these require launches around late 2028 and early 2029, and with much longer flight durations. In summary it is found that 2024 YR 4 represents an 'opportunity rich environment' boding well for any attempts by humanity to either examine this object close up, or even to deflect it if necessary.

The first interstellar object to be discovered, 1I/'Oumuamua, exhibited various unusual properties as it was tracked on its passage through the inner solar system in 2017/2018. In terms of the potential scientific return, a spacecraft mission to intercept and study it in situ would be invaluable. As an extension to previous Project Lyra studies, this paper elaborates an alternative mission to 1I/'Oumuamua, this time also requiring a Jupiter Oberth Manoeuvre (JOM) to accelerate the spacecraft towards its destination. The difference is in the combination of planetary flybys exploited to get to Jupiter, which includes a Mars encounter before proceeding to Jupiter. The trajectory identified is inferior to previous finds in terms of higher ∆V requirement (15.6 km s-1), longer flight duration (29 years) and less mission preparation time (launch 2026), however it benefits from a feature absent from previous JOM candidates, in that there is little or no ∆V en route to Jupiter (i.e. a free ride) which means the spacecraft need not carry a liquid propellant stage. This is marginally offset by the higher ∆V needed at Jupiter, requiring either 2 or 3 staged solid rocket motors. As an example, a Falcon Heavy Expendable with a CASTOR 30B booster followed by a STAR 48B can deliver 102kg to 1I/'Oumuamua by the year 2059. Other scenarios with shorter flight durations and higher payload masses are possible.

The first definite interstellar object observed in our solar system was discovered in October of 2017 and was subsequently designated 1I/'Oumuamua. In addition to its extrasolar origin, observations and analysis of this object indicate some unusual features which can only be explained by in-situ exploration.For this purpose, various spacecraft intercept missions have been proposed. Theirpropulsion schemes have been chemical, exploiting a Jupiter and Solar Oberth Maneuver (mission duration of 22 years) and also using Earth-based lasers to propel laser sails (1-2 years), both with launch dates in 2030. For the former, mission durations are quite prolonged and for the latter, the necessary laser infrastructure may not be in place by 2030. In this study Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) is examined which has yet to materialise as far as real missions are concerned, but due to its research and development in the US government sponsored Rover/NERVA programs, actually has a higher TRL than laser propulsion. Various solid reactor core options are studied, using either engines directly derived from these programs, or more advanced options, like a proposed particle bed NTR. With specific impulses at least twice those of chemical rockets, NTP opens the opportunity for much higher ΔV budgets, allowing simpler and more direct, time-saving trajectories to be exploited. For example a spacecraft with an upgraded NERVA/Pewee-class NTR travelling along an Earth-Jupiter-1I trajectory, would reach 1I/'Oumuamua within 14 years of a launch in 2031. The payload mass to 1I/'Oumuamua would be around 2.5metric tonnes, but even larger masses and shorter mssion durations can be achieved with some of the more advanced NTR options studied. In all 4 different proposed NTRs and 5 different trajectory scenarios are examined.

In October 2017, the first interstellar object within our solar system was discovered. Today designated 1I/'Oumuamua, it shows characteristics that have never before been observed in a celestial body. Due to these characteristics, an in-situ investigation of 1I would be of extraordinary scientific value. Previous studies have demonstrated that a mission to 1I/'Oumuamua is feasible using current and near-term technologies however with an anticipated launch date of 2020-2021, this is too soon to be realistic. This paper aims at addressing the question of the feasibility of a mission to 1I/'Oumuamua in 2024 and beyond. Using the OITS trajectory simulation tool, various scenarios are analyzed, including a powered Jupiter flyby and Solar Oberth maneuver, a Jupiter powered flyby, and more complex flyby schemes including a Mars and Venus flyby. With a powered Jupiter flyby and Solar Oberth maneuver, we identify a trajectory to 1I/'Oumuamua with a launch date in 2033, a total velocity increment of 18.2 km/s, and arrival at 1I/'Oumuamua in 2048. With an additional deep space maneuver before the powered Jupiter flyby, a trajectory with a launch date in 2030, a total velocity increment of 15.3 km/s, and an arrival at 1I/'Oumuamua in 2052 were identified. Both launch dates would provide over a decade for spacecraft development, in contrast to the previously identified 2020-2021 launch dates. Furthermore, the distance from the Sun at the Oberth burn is at 5 Solar radii. This results in heat flux values, which are of the same order of magnitude as for the Parker Solar Probe. We conclude that a mission to 1I/'Oumuamua is feasible, using existing and near-term technologies and there is sufficient time for developing such a mission.

On 2019 August 30, a second interstellar object 2I/Borisov was discovered 2 years after the discovery of the first known interstellar object, 1I/'Oumuamua. Can we send a spacecraft to this object, using existing technologies? In this paper we assess the technical feasibility of a near-term mission to 2I/Borisov. We

Horyu-V, the Space Environment Explorer is a scientific satellite developed for the purpose of gathering detailed measurements about the space environment effects on satellite systems. Horyu-V project involves students of the Kyushu Institute of Technology. It allowed a multi-cultural environment and an excellent tool for education. The students are responsible for the design, assembly, integration, test of the satellite, and augmentation of the existing ground segment facility for the operation of the satellite. It will enhance capacity building for the students, and scientific research components for upcoming studies

of the relative motions between formation flying space vehicles in orbit about the Earth and Mars. Formation flying is proposed for: cross calibration of science instruments on follow-on missions and new technology demonstrations, moving from large platforms to several smaller vehicles with distributed instrumentation (virtual platjorms) and spaceborne interferometry. In Mars orbit, a small constellation for in-situ navigation is being considered to enable automated operations and to reduce Earth based tracking requirements. To establish achievable control accuracies for these types of missions, dynamics in the orbit design space are examined thoroughly. Aspherical and third body gravity, atmospheric drag, and solar radiation pressure are the primary dynamic forces responsible for producing relative motions. High fidelity models of these forces are used to examine the relative motion characteristics of circular LEO and GEO orbits and circular low and synchronous Mars orbits.

A quick reference guide to CubeSats, the standardized approach to miniaturized satellites that has revolutionized access to space. This document is for those who are new to CubeSats or just need a concise reference.

Keywords: CubeSat, engineering design, licensing, online reference links, spacecraft, subsystems, systems

Current physics assumes that the speed of light (c) is a universal constant, forming the foundation of relativity and modern cosmology. However, this assumption is based on mathematical necessity rather than direct measurement under all conditions. This paper proposes that c is not a fundamental constant but instead varies due to cosmic drag, power-to-weight ratios, and environmental resistance-similar to how electrical circuits experience resistance and voltage drop. If true, this would challenge current interpretations of redshift, dark energy, and time dilation, suggesting that the universe's structure is governed by energy interactions rather than an absolute space-time framework.

NAVSTAR/GPS is a spatial positioning system which answers the questions "What time, what position, and what velocity is it?"quickly, accuately and inexpensively anywhere on the globe. In this paper we present a mathematical form of disruptive forces that affect the orbits of GPS satellites.

T his chapter considers how human inhabitation of off-world environments , such as Martian or Lunar habitats, may allow one to think differently about the relationship between people, waste, and concepts of pollution. Currently, major governmental space agencies and commercial space enterprises are planning human habitats for living on the moon and on Mars. In such habitats, the body and the supporting architectural infrastructure are bound in a critical life supporting dialectic. Within the closed-loop life support systems required for off-world living, what are the boundaries between the human body and the built environment? While there is a long history of thinking through the relationship between the body and architectural and infrastructural forms, habitats in outer space force one to confront one's waste in new ways. The emphasis on the re-use of resources repositions human waste from a profane substance-one which is to be both physically and symbolically cleansed from the home-to a source of vibrant potential as a usable good. In this chapter, we use ethnographic insights from our work with architects working on design renderings for a European Space Agency Lunar habitat to trace how human waste becomes a problem in off-world environments. In these contexts, human waste is potentially reconfigured as a substance that should be seen, thought about, and kept close. As JAXA astronaut Koichi Wakata states from his many months of living in space, 'Here onboard the International Space Station (ISS), we turn yesterday's coffee into tomorrow's coffee!'. As debates arise on how to incorporate sewage infrastructure and closed-loop life support systems in the habitats, the conservative nature of Earth-bound architecture is

As humanity pushes the boundaries of exploration, the need for innovative architectural solutions in extraterrestrial environments becomes increasingly critical. This paper, Architecting the Final Frontiers of the Most Extreme Environments: Development and Research in Orbital, Lunar, and Martian Environment from Perspective of Outer Space Architecture, explores the interdisciplinary challenges and opportunities in designing sustainable habitats beyond Earth. We examine current research and technological advancements in orbital structures, lunar bases, and Martian colonies, focusing on structural integrity, resource utilization, environmental adaptation, and human factors. The study highlights the role of autonomous construction, in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), and adaptive design principles in overcoming the unique constraints of microgravity, extreme temperatures, and cosmic radiation. By integrating insights from architecture, engineering, and space sciences, this research contributes to the evolving discourse on space habitation, offering frameworks for resilient, efficient, and habitable structures that will support future exploration and colonization efforts.

The research "Developing Adaptable Design for Interplanetary Transportation Habitat Modules, Considering Changing Conditions and Long-Term Sustainability" aims to redefine interplanetary living spaces by prioritizing adaptability, sustainability, and astronaut well-being in extended space missions. It delves into the vital exploration of creating adaptable and sustainable designs for habitat modules intended for interplanetary transportation. As humanity ventures further into space exploration, the need for habitats that can withstand changing conditions and ensure long-term sustainability becomes increasingly crucial. This study focuses on developing innovative solutions that prioritize flexibility and environmental consciousness in the design of habitat modules. By considering the dynamic nature of space environments and the challenges posed by prolonged space travel, the research aims to revolutionize how we conceptualize and construct living spaces for astronauts. Through a meticulous approach that integrates adaptability, resilience, and sustainability, this project seeks to redefine the standards for interplanetary habitat modules. By addressing the complexities of evolving conditions in space and emphasizing the importance of long-term operational sustainability, the study aims to enhance the efficiency, safety, and comfort of astronauts during extended space missions. This research endeavors to pave the way for a new era of space exploration, where habitat modules play a central role in ensuring the well-being and success of interplanetary travelers.

Architects can bring more human-centered habitation to the journey in space. Hereby, this thesis will moreover talk about the history of space architecture, planetary, and non-planetary developments, and interplanetary, architectural solutions for a habitat module in diverse conditions, roles of architects in this challenge with knowledge of science, technology, engineering, and interdisciplinary titles and it will point out the necessity of architects in the space industry.

Experimental and theoretical techniques to study non-isothermal transport processes in the constrained vapor bubble thermosyphon (CVBT) were developed using a pentane/quartz system. The transport processes can be evaluated by measuring the liquid film profile, which gives the pressure field, and the temperature field. The axi'al variation in the capillary pressure was measured using an image-analyzing interferometer that is based on computer-enhanced video microscopy of the naturally occurring interference fringes. Thermoelectric coolers were used to control the temperature level in the condensation region and, therefore, the length of the approximately "adiabatic" surface region which is a function of the temperature difference between the CVBT surface and the surroundings. High values for the axial thermal conductance in the "adiabatic" surface region were demonstrated under certain conditions.

Conventional multi-layer insulations exhibit excellent insulation performance but they are limited to the temperature range to which their components reflective foils and spacer materials are compatible. For high temperature applications, the internal multi-screen insulation IMI has been developed that utilizes unique ceramic material technology to produce reflective screens with high temperature stability. For analytical insulation sizing a parametric material model is developed that includes the main contributors for heat flow which are radiation and conduction. The adaptation of model-parameters based on effective steady-state thermal conductivity measurements performed at NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) allows for extrapolation to arbitrary stack configurations and temperature ranges beyond the ones that were covered in the conductivity measurements. Experimental validation of the parametric material model was performed during the thermal qualification test of the X-38 Chin-...

This paper aims to present the Comprehensiveness Balance for Efficiency (CBfE) method for Platform-Based Satellite Family. The lack of a penalty measurement to assess the performance loss of using a platform could reduce significantly the family performance. The method, taking into account the comprehensiveness of space missions and the platform characteristics defined at the conception phase, assesses the platform inefficiency, in terms of the additional mass required by the platform equipment to cope with the worst environment factors. The method covers the aerodynamic drag and torque, the Earth's magnetic field, the eclipse and Sun energy absorption, the cumulated radiation dose absorbed by the electronic components and the effect on the structure to be prepared for several launchers. Based on this assessment and on an interactive process, the platform designer tunes the comprehensiveness with the suitable level of efficiency. A real case, the Brazilian MultiMission Platform project (PMM), is presented as an example of application. The method covers an existing gap on the platform development process for space applications.

This thesis explores the hypothesis that using modern technology, specifically autonomous space swarms equipped with quantum communication systems, can enhance the search for extraterrestrial life. Integrating concepts from quantum communication, swarm intelligence, and advanced miniaturized spacecraft, this thesis proposes a novel method for detecting biosignatures and technosignatures in distant star systems. The approach leverages existing and emerging technologies to create a comprehensive system capable of exploring multiple star systems simultaneously, increasing the likelihood of discovering extraterrestrial life. This perspective has profound implications for our understanding of space exploration, communication technology, and the potential for life beyond Earth.

A medio siglo de la llegada del hombre a la Luna, veamos algo sobre esta hazana que, a un costo del orden de un cuarto del PIB de EE UU y con grandes riesgos dadas las limitaciones e incertidumbres de la epoca, ademas de conocimientos cientificos fundamentales sobre la geologia del satelite y su ambiente natural, dejo ensenanzas y avances tecnologicos para la medicina aeroespacial, la telematica, la logistica y la astronautica

Manned spaceflight outside of low-Earth orbit requires significant advances in closed-loop life support systems, especially the recycling of solid and liquid wastes to produce oxygen, food, and fresh water. Here, moderate temperature (400-600 °C) slow pyrolysis was tested to transform a high-fidelity spacecraft solid waste simulant into nutrient-rich crop growth medium for food production in space, while recovering water and carbon dioxide. Qualitative results indicated that water recovered from a simple drying process was of poor quality. Produced biochars approximated the characteristics of saline-sodic soils with P, K and micronutrients, low nitrogen, and no meaningful heavy metals, which suggests applicability as growth media. Before being used as growth media, biochar would likely need to be rinsed to remove sodium and supplemented with a source of nitrogen. If uncatalyzed slow pyrolysis is to be used, observations suggest that the produced volatiles should be directly combusted and water recovered from the flue gas, rather than trying to condense and separate the watery bio-oil product. This proof of concept study determined that low-temperature pyrolysis can be used to generate biocharbased soil, which may support agriculture during spaceflight while recycling nutrients and water from waste materials.

This paper shows that the Theory of Functional Connections (TFC) can be used to find the thrust (given by a sub-optimal linear control law) required to create and maintain periodic orbits, like resonant orbits with the rotation of the Earth. Thus, the satellite will be located at the same position in the sky over the surface of the Earth every day, despite the perturbations. This facilitates the predictions of its motion and, thus, its tracking. The perturbations considered are: the 𝐽 2 term of the Earth's gravitational potential and the gravitational presence of the Sun and the Moon. The proposed approach is applied to two distinct periodic orbits. The first is an 8 h periodic orbit while the second is a 24 h geosynchronous periodic orbit. The fuel costs to maintain periodicity are evaluated and compared with other two methods: in the first method the perturbations are perfectly canceled by a variable thrust and in the second method a two-impulsive maneuver is applied as also obtained using TFC. Comparisons with the other two methods show that the one proposed in this paper can be used to lower the fuel costs.

This study explores the use of endemic plant species in campus design through two case studies: the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) in the United States and the University of Western Australia (UWA) in Perth, Australia. These institutions represent diverse ecological contexts, providing insights into the challenges and opportunities of endemic plant integration in campus landscapes.

A multistage system has been proposed for cooling a circulating fluid that is subject to intermittent intense heating. The system would be both flexible and redundant in that it could operate in a basic passive mode, either sequentially or simultaneously with operation of a first, active cooling subsystem, and either sequentially or simultaneously with a second cooling subsystem that could be active, passive, or a combination of both. This flexibility and redundancy, in combination with the passive nature of at least one of the modes of operation, would make the system more reliable, relative to a conventional cooling system. The system would include a tube-in-shell heat exchanger, within which the space between the tubes would be filled with a phase-change material (PCM). The circulating hot fluid would flow along the tubes in the heat exchanger. In the basic passive mode of operation, heat would be conducted from the hot fluid into the PCM, wherein the heat would be stored tempora...

This case study critically examines the technical feasibility of the Apollo moon landings, focusing on the limitations of 1960s technology, including computing power, materials science, and spacecraft design. It explores the challenges of the Apollo missions, particularly the improbable precision required for lunar navigation, the vulnerabilities of the early space suits, and the limitations of the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC). Through an analysis of the technology available at the time, the study investigates how these challenges might have been addressed or overcome, while considering the possibility that the missions could have been staged to achieve political and geopolitical goals during the Cold War. By evaluating the plausibility of the moon landings in the context of the available technology, this study raises questions about the authenticity of the Apollo missions and highlights the political motivations that may have influenced the space race.

Analysis of all-aluminum solar sails resulted in predicted characteristic accelerations, a c , of ~0.3 m/s 2 for aluminum sheets of only ~4 nm thickness, and ~0.5 to ~5 m/s 2 for aluminum grids. These accelerations are much higher than the 0.001 m/s 2 for the conventional solar sail with a plastic backing. The resolution of the large discrepancy of ~0.5 m/s 2 predicted using the theory developed by Christensen (1999), compared to the ~5 m/s 2 predicted using microwave/infrared (IR) theory, extended to visible wavelengths, is crucial at determining if a perforated sail offers vastly superior performance at solar wavelengths as suggested by physical intuition.

Design and fabrication of a Silicon-based MEMS rotary engine are discussed in this paper. This work is part of an effort currently underway to develop a portable, autonomous power generation system potentially capable of having an order of magnitude improvement in energy density over alkaline or lithium-ion batteries. Central to the development of this power generation system are small-scale rotary internal combustion engines fueled by high energy density liquid hydrocarbons capable of delivering power on the order of milli-Watts. The rotary (Wankel-type) engine is well suited for MEMS fabrication due to its planar geometry, high specific power, and self-valving operation with a minimal number of moving parts. The smallest “micro-rotary” engine currently being fabricated has an epitrochoidal-shaped housing under 1 mm3 in size and with a rotor swept volume of 0.08 mm3. This paper discusses some of the fabrication issues unique to MEMS fabrication of a rotary engine at this small scal...

AI algorithms streamline mission planning by simulating countless scenarios in a fraction of the time. Machine learning models analyze parameters like fuel consumption, spacecraft trajectories, and environmental conditions to optimize mission designs. Learn more in a AI/ML for Space Engineering course by Tonex.

This study explores a satellite-based approach to solar geoengineering as a potential solution for climate change mitigation. The proposed method involves deploying billions of satellites equipped with solar panels and polycarbonate sheets to reflect sunlight, cooling the planet by 1–3°C depending on satellite configuration. Detailed analyses include satellite configurations, cost estimates, and environmental impacts. While the economic feasibility remains a concern, technological advancements in satellite manufacturing and launch processes could reduce costs significantly. The study also addresses critical issues such as orbital management, space debris mitigation, and international spectrum coordination, proposing policy frameworks to ensure the sustainability of Earth's orbital environment. Lastly, environmental and ecological considerations are discussed, advocating for sustainable practices in satellite design and lifecycle management. The paper underscores the potential and limitations of satellite-based solar geoengineering, emphasizing the need for global collaboration to tackle these challenges effectively.

In this paper we consider the fuel-optimal rendezvous between a satellite and a spacecraft in a central force field with a drag force that is linear in the velocity. In this general setting we linearize the equations of motion of the spacecraft and show that they can be reduced effectively, in the case of a linear drag, to one second order linear differential equation. We then specialize to the case of inverse square laws. Under certain simplifying assumptions a state-transition matrix can be found in terms of integrals. The work can then be placed in the context of various control models that have been developed in previous work.

John S. Lewis is Professor of Planetary Sciences and Co-Director of the Space Engineering Research Center at the University of Arizona. He was previously a Professor of Planetary Sciences at MIT and Visiting Professor at the California Institute of Technology. Most recently, he was a Visiting Professor at Tsinghua University in Beijing for the 2005-2006 academic year. His research interests are related to the application of chemistry to astronomical problems, including the origin of the Solar System, the evolution of planetary atmospheres, the origin of organic matter in planetary environments, the chemical structure and history of icy satellites, the hazards of comet and asteroid bombardment of Earth, and the extraction, processing, and use of the energy and material resources of nearby space. He has served as member or Chairman of a wide variety of NASA and NAS advisory committees and review panels. He has written 17 books, including undergraduate and graduate level texts and popu...

How should life support for deep space be developed? The International Space Station (ISS) life support system is the operational result of many decades of research and development. Long duration deep space missions such as Mars have been expected to use matured and upgraded versions of ISS life support. Deep space life support must use the knowledge base incorporated in ISS but it must also meet much more difficult requirements. The primary new requirement is that life support in deep space must be considerably more reliable than on ISS or anywhere in the Earth-Moon system, where emergency resupply and a quick return are possible. Due to the great distance from Earth and the long duration of deep space missions, if life support systems fail, the traditional approaches for emergency supply of oxygen and water, emergency supply of parts, and crew return to Earth or escape to a safe haven are likely infeasible. The Orbital Replacement Unit (ORU) maintenance approach used by ISS is unsuitable for deep space with ORU's as large and complex as those originally provided in ISS designs because it minimizes opportunities for commonality of spares, requires replacement of many functional parts with each failure, and results in substantial launch mass and volume penalties. It has become impractical even for ISS after the shuttle era, resulting in the need for ad hoc repair activity at lower assembly levels with consequent crew time penalties and extended repair timelines. Less complex, more robust technical approaches may be needed to meet the difficult deep space requirements for reliability, maintainability, and reparability. Developing an entirely new life support system would neglect what has been achieved. The suggested approach is use the ISS life support technologies as a platform to build on and to continue to improve ISS subsystems while also developing new subsystems where needed to meet deep space requirements.

I would like to pay humble gratitude to Allah Almighty, Who has bestowed me with the courage and help to do this project. At SITAEL, I would like to thank my supervisor Mr. Tommaso Misuri for guiding me throughout this project and my mentor Mr. Harshraj Raiji for his constant support. Honorable mentions include Mr. Nicola Giusti for support with understanding the technicalities of 3D modelling and Mr. Giuseppe Di Pasquale for his work on mission analysis for PISAT.

In order to study gravity eects on plant structure and function, it may become necessary to remove the g-stimulus. On Earth, various instruments such as clinostats have been used by biologists in an attempt to neutralize the eects of gravity. In this study, the position of amyloplasts was assayed in columella cells in the roots of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. seedlings grown in the following conditions: on Earth, on a two-dimensional clinostat at 1 rpm, on a threedimensional clinostat (also called a random-positioning machine, or an RPM), and in space (true microgravity). In addition, the eects of these gravity treatments on columella cell area and plastid area also were measured. In terms of the parameters measured, only amyloplast position was aected by the gravity treatments. Plastid position was not signi®cantly dierent between space-¯ight and RPM conditions but was signi®cantly dierent between space¯ight and the classical twodimensional clinostat treatments. Flanking columella cells showed a greater susceptibility to changes in gravity compared to the central columella cells. In addition, columella cells of seedlings that were grown on the RPM did not exhibit deleterious eects in terms of their ultrastructure as has been reported previously for seedlings grown on a two-dimensional clinostat. This study supports the hypothesis that the RPM provides a useful simulation of weightlessness.

Journey times and scientific data return are two challenges to Space exploration. Holographic structures that enable novel beam steering methods are being considered for the laser propulsion of ultra-light sail craft as well as for the encoding and the transmission of data. This paper explores ideas developed in conversation with a number of researchers and key innovations that could enable future technologies, along with a series of holograms that are being launched into Space on an Alpha CubeSat. Current research into photonics structures-including metasurfaces and optical data transmission have extended the applications holographic structures. These understandings and advanced materials are of great interest to the Space exploration community. This paper looks particularly at interstellar exploration and the proposed use of light-sails to travel to the outer regions of our solar system and beyond to nearby star systems.

This paper presents the design, development, and launch plan for Sorana Orbit, a compact and modular small satellite mesh network developed by PlawLabs Ltd., co-founded by Yagiz, Nik, and Omar. Leveraging advancements in small satellite technology and mesh networking, Sorana Orbit offers a versatile platform for global telecommunications, Earth observation, and scientific research. Designed as a 6U CubeSat measuring 10 cm × 20 cm × 30 cm with a mass of approximately 12 kg, the satellite incorporates high-efficiency triple-junction gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells, inter-satellite communication links, and a modular payload interface. The mesh network maximizes efficiency by utilizing the least number of nodes necessary for global coverage and employs decentralized servers on Earth for data processing. Strategic partnerships with industry leaders and adherence to rigorous engineering standards ensure a level of quality surpassing current industry benchmarks. This paper details the system architecture, network design, development methodologies, and strategic collaborations established to realize Sorana Orbit.

NASA photographs are utilized from Voyager 1 and 2 flybys of Saturn and from Ranger and Orbiter lunar-mapping spacecraft. Appreciation is extended to NASA for releasing this information to the public that others might study it. Appreciation also is extended to my wife and lifelong friend, Claire Michaelson Bergrun, who supplied generous encouragement during all phases of producing this book. To Dr. Walter Vincenti, Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics at Stanford University, special thanks are given for his valuable suggestions at the final phase of the manuscript. Clark Constable, noted for exceptional skills which have made it distinctive over the centuries, is particularly recognized for continued pursuit of excellence. Acknowledgment also goes to Edinburgh's Meg Ross for her untiring reading and re-reading of the processed manuscript.