Academia.eduAcademia.edu

Standard Cognitive and Mental Health Measures May Not Generalize Across Cultures

Profile image of Priyanka UtamaPriyanka Utama
https://doi.org/10.31234/OSF.IO/D8BCJ
visibility

…

description

33 pages

link

1 file

Abstract

Individuals worldwide share basic affective and cognitive abilities, and receive mental health diagnoses using similar scales, yet surprisingly little research has examined the validity of these measures across cultures. Here, we performed direct comparison between British participants (N = 187; 51.3% female, 48.7% male; age 19-73 years) and Chinese participants (N = 194; 66.5% female, 33.5% male; age 19-60 years) in mid-2022 on behavioural tasks of facial emotion recognition (with and without contextual faces) and sustained attention, as well as mental health measures of anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and impulsivity. We found that British participants were better at recognising emotions, especially negative emotions; while Chinese participants showed higher obsessive-compulsive symptoms, driven primarily by one specific scale item. In contrast, the cultural groups exhibited negligible differences in sustained attention task and other mental health measures. Th...

Related papers

Exploring the East-West Divide in Prevalence of Affective Disorder: A Case for Cultural Differences in Coping With Negative Emotion
Matthew Hornsey

Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 2017

Lifetime rates of clinical depression and anxiety in the West tend to be approximately 4 to 10 times greater than rates in Asia. In this review, we explore one possible reason for this cross-cultural difference, that Asian cultures think differently about emotion than do Western cultures and that these different systems of thought help explain why negative affect does not escalate into clinical disorder at the same rate. We review research from multiple disciplines-including cross-cultural psychology, social cognition, clinical psychology, and psychiatry-to make the case that the Eastern holistic principles of contradiction (each experience is associated with its opposite), change (the world exists in a state of constant flux), and context (the interconnectedness of all things) fundamentally shape people's experience of emotions in different cultures. We then review evidence for how these cultural differences influence how successfully people use common emotion regulation strate...

View PDFchevron_right
Understanding Cultural Influences on Depression by Analyzing a Measure of Its Constituent Symptoms
Michael Bond

International Journal of Psychological Studies, 2010

To examine the different understandings of depression between Chinese and Americans, we employed confirmatory factor analysis, multidimensional scaling, and hierarchical cluster analysis of the symptom measure provided by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D). The present study revealed a different center-periphery scatter pattern of the twenty items of the CES-D in the two cultural groups, such that Chinese made a clearer discrimination between the affective/interpersonal and somatic items, while Americans conflated such items. Moreover, Chinese tended to further separate somatic symptoms into two subdivisions: subjective symptoms and objective symptoms. These results demonstrate that the conceptual organization of the symptoms characterizing depression is culture-related, suggesting culturally appropriate modifications in its clinical practice.

View PDFchevron_right
Cultural issues in the classification and diagnosis of mood and anxiety disorders
subho chakrabarti

World Psychiatry 2012; 11 (suppl. 1): 26-30.

The World Health Organization has stated that clinical utility and cross-cultural applicability will be accorded a very high priority during the process of revising the ICD-10. This brief review highlights the impact of cultural factors on clinical presentations, gender differences, and treatment realities in the area of mood and anxiety disorders, with particular emphasis on research from non-Western settings. Even a cursory examination of these issues reveals significant cross-cultural variations in the clinical and treatment profile of these disorders. The process of revision would greatly benefit by incorporating relevant insights from the growing body of evidence regarding socio-cultural influences on depressive and anxiety disorders. This may eventually help lessen the widespread problems of non-recognition and under-treatment of these disorders, thereby enhancing the global utility of the ICD-11.

View PDFchevron_right
The Cultural Shaping of Depression: Somatic Symptoms in China, Psychological Symptoms in North America?
Andrew Ryder

Journal of abnormal …, 2008

The expectation that Chinese people present distress somatically is a central prediction of cultural psychopathology and has been the subject of considerable theoretical speculation. At the same time, empirical studies have been infrequent and have yielded mixed results. The authors examined symptom presentation in Chinese (n ϭ 175) and Euro-Canadian (n ϭ 107) outpatients, using spontaneous problem report, structured clinical interview, and symptom questionnaire methods. All 3 methods yielded cross-culturally equivalent somatic and psychological symptom subscales. Chinese outpatients reported more somatic symptoms on spontaneous problem report and structured clinical interview compared with Euro-Canadians, who in turn reported more psychological symptoms on all 3 methods. The relation between culture and somatic symptom presentation was mediated by a tendency toward externally oriented thinking. Difficulties with identifying emotions or describing them to others did not differ significantly across cultures, supporting a nonpathological interpretation of observed differences. Psychological symptom effects were larger and more consistent than somatic symptom effects; because other studies have confirmed the ubiquity of somatic presentations worldwide, these results suggest that Western psychologization may be more culturally specific than is Chinese somatization.

View PDFchevron_right
Cross-Cultural and Gender Invariance of Five Common Symptom and Cognitive Vulnerability Measures in the United States and Singapore
Nur Hani Zainal

2021

Reliable and valid measurements of anxiety, chronic worry, depressive, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms is essential when seeking to draw cross-cultural and gender comparisons. Accordingly, the current study determined the psychometric properties of five widely used symptom measures in the United States (U.S.) and Singapore (SG) and across gender: Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire (OBQ), Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R), and the Penn State Worry Questionnaire-Abbreviated (PSWQ-A). Participants comprised college students (U.S.: n = 292; SG: n = 144). Strict measurement invariance (equal factor loadings, item thresholds, residual variances) was observed for all measures across cultures and genders, except for the BAI, which met partial Level 1 strict cross-gender invariance. Overall, findings suggest a strong degree of cross-cultural and cross-gender construct compatibility, but also point to some notabl...

View PDFchevron_right

Related topics

  • Psychology
  • Clinical Psychology
  • Developmental Psychology
  • Psychiatry
  • Economics
  • Macroeconomics
  • Cognitive Reappraisal

    • References (81)

    1. Abramowitz, J. S., & Deacon, B. J. (2006). Psychometric properties and construct validity of the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised: Replication and extension with a clinical sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20(8), 1016-1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.03.001
    2. Arnett, J. J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist, 63, 602-614. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003- 066X.63.7.602
    3. Aviezer, H., Bentin, S., Dudarev, V., & Hassin, R. R. (2011). The automaticity of emotional face- context integration. Emotion, 11(6), 1406-1414. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023578
    4. Aviezer, H., Hassin, R. R., Ryan, J., Grady, C., Susskind, J., Anderson, A., Moscovitch, M., & Bentin, S. (2008). Angry, Disgusted, or Afraid?: Studies on the Malleability of Emotion Perception. Psychological Science, 19(7), 724-732. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 9280.2008.02148.x
    5. Barrett, L. F., & Kensinger, E. A. (2010). Context Is Routinely Encoded During Emotion Perception. Psychological Science, 21(4), 595-599. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610363547
    6. Barrett, L. F., Mesquita, B., & Gendron, M. (2011). Context in Emotion Perception. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(5), 286-290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411422522
    7. Baumard, N., & Sperber, D. (2010). Weird people, yes, but also weird experiments. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2-3), 84-85. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X10000038
    8. Beaupré, M. G., & Hess, U. (2005). Cross-Cultural Emotion Recognition among Canadian Ethnic Groups. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(3), 355-370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022104273656
    9. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Carbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8(1), 77-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(88)90050-5
    10. Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An Inventory for Measuring Depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4(6), 561-571. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004
    11. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). (n.d.). Addiction Research Center. Retrieved 26 June 2023, from https://arc.psych.wisc.edu/self-report/beck-depression-inventory-bdi/
    12. Chan, R. C. K. (2001). A further study on the sustained attention response to task (SART): The effect of age, gender and education. Brain Injury, 15(9), 819-829. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050110034325
    13. Chen, S., Yao, N., Qian, M., & Lin, M. (2016). Attentional biases in high social anxiety using a flanker task. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 51, 27-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.12.002
    14. Craske, M. G., & Stein, M. B. (2016). Anxiety. The Lancet, 388(10063), 3048-3059. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30381-6
    15. Dailey, M. N., Joyce, C., Lyons, M. J., Kamachi, M., Ishi, H., Gyoba, J., & Cottrell, G. W. (2010). Evidence and a computational explanation of cultural differences in facial expression recognition. Emotion, 10(6), 874-893. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020019
    16. Dalili, M. N., Penton-Voak, I. S., Harmer, C. J., & Munafò, M. R. (2015). Meta-analysis of emotion recognition deficits in major depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 45(6), 1135-1144. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714002591
    17. Daniel-Watanabe, L., McLaughlin, M., Gormley, S., & Robinson, O. J. (2022). Association Between a Directly Translated Cognitive Measure of Negative Bias and Self-reported Psychiatric Symptoms. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 7(2), 201-209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.02.010
    18. Dyer, M. L., Attwood, A. S., Penton-Voak, I. S., & Munafò, M. R. (2022). The role of state and trait anxiety in the processing of facial expressions of emotion. Royal Society Open Science, 9(1), 210056. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.210056
    19. Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., O'Sullivan, M., Chan, A., Diacoyanni-Tarlatzis, I., Heider, K., Krause, R., LeCompte, W. A., Pitcairn, T., Ricci-Bitti, P. E., Scherer, K., Tomita, M., & Tzavaras, A. (1987). Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(4), 712-717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.712
    20. Elfenbein, H. A. (2015). In-Group Advantage and Other-Group Bias in Facial Emotion Recognition. In M. K. Mandal & A. Awasthi (Eds.), Understanding Facial Expressions in Communication: Cross-cultural and Multidisciplinary Perspectives (pp. 57-71). Springer India. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1934-7_4
    21. Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2002). On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 203-235. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.203
    22. Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2003). When familiarity breeds accuracy: Cultural exposure and facial emotion recognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 276- 290. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.276
    23. Eriksen, B. A., & Eriksen, C. W. (1974). Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task. Perception & Psychophysics, 16(1), 143-149. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203267
    24. Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149-1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
    25. Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Leiberg, S., Langner, R., Kichic, R., Hajcak, G., & Salkovskis, P. M. (2002). The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory: Development and validation of a short version. Psychological Assessment, 14, 485-496. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040- 3590.14.4.485
    26. Forster, S., Nunez Elizalde, A. O., Castle, E., & Bishop, S. J. (2015). Unraveling the Anxious Mind: Anxiety, Worry, and Frontal Engagement in Sustained Attention Versus Off-Task Processing. Cerebral Cortex, 25(3), 609-618. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht248
    27. Hampson, E., van Anders, S. M., & Mullin, L. I. (2006). A female advantage in the recognition of emotional facial expressions: Test of an evolutionary hypothesis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27(6), 401-416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.05.002
    28. Hayes, S. C. (2004). Acceptance and commitment therapy, relational frame theory, and the third wave of behavioral and cognitive therapies. Behavior Therapy, 35(4), 639-665. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80013-3
    29. Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010a). Most people are not WEIRD. Nature, 466(7302), 29-29. https://doi.org/10.1038/466029a
    30. Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010b). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2-3), 61-83. Cambridge Core. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X
    31. Hess, U., Blaison, C., & Kafetsios, K. (2016). Judging Facial Emotion Expressions in Context: The Influence of Culture and Self-Construal Orientation. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 40(1), 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-015-0223-7
    32. Huppert, J. D., Walther, M. R., Hajcak, G., Yadin, E., Foa, E. B., Simpson, H. B., & Liebowitz, M. R. (2007). The OCI-R: Validation of the subscales in a clinical sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21(3), 394-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.05.006
    33. Ito, K., Masuda, T., & Hioki, K. (2012). Affective Information in Context and Judgment of Facial Expression: Cultural Similarities and Variations in Context Effects Between North Americans and East Asians. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43(3), 429-445. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110395139
    34. Jack, R. E., Garrod, O. G. B., Yu, H., Caldara, R., & Schyns, P. G. (2012). Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally universal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(19), 7241-7244. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200155109
    35. Jackson, J. D., & Balota, D. A. (2012). Mind-wandering in younger and older adults: Converging evidence from the sustained attention to response task and reading for comprehension. Psychology and Aging, 27, 106-119. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023933
    36. Julian, L. J. (2011). Measures of anxiety: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-Anxiety (HADS-A). Arthritis Care & Research, 63(S11), S467-S472. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.20561
    37. Kahl, K. G., Winter, L., & Schweiger, U. (2012). The third wave of cognitive behavioural therapies: What is new and what is effective? Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25(6), 522. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e328358e531
    38. Kang, S.-M., & Lau, A. S. (2013). Revisiting the out-group advantage in emotion recognition in a multicultural society: Further evidence for the in-group advantage. Emotion, 13(2), 203- 215. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030013
    39. Kassambara, A. (2020). rstatix: Pipe-friendly framework for basic statistical tests. R Package Version 0.6. 0.
    40. Kayikcioglu, O., Bilgin, S., Seymenoglu, G., & Deveci, A. (2017). State and Trait Anxiety Scores of Patients Receiving Intravitreal Injections. Biomedicine Hub, 2(2), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1159/000478993
    41. Klöppel, S., van Eimeren, T., Glauche, V., Vongerichten, A., Münchau, A., Frackowiak, R. S. J., Büchel, C., Weiller, C., & Siebner, H. R. (2007). The effect of handedness on cortical motor activation during simple bilateral movements. NeuroImage, 34(1), 274-280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.038
    42. Knowles, K. A., & Olatunji, B. O. (2020). Specificity of trait anxiety in anxiety and depression: Meta-analysis of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Clinical Psychology Review, 82, 101928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101928
    43. Kuwabara, M., Son, J. Y., & Smith, L. B. (2011). Attention to Context: U.S. and Japanese Children's Emotional Judgments. Journal of Cognition and Development, 12(4), 502- 517. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2011.554927
    44. Langner, R., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2013). Sustaining attention to simple tasks: A meta-analytic review of the neural mechanisms of vigilant attention. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 870- 900. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030694
    45. Lewis, F. C., Reeve, R. A., Kelly, S. P., & Johnson, K. A. (2017). Sustained attention to a predictable, unengaging Go/No-Go task shows ongoing development between 6 and 11 years. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 79(6), 1726-1741. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1351-4
    46. Liu, S. K., Chiu, C.-H., Chang, C.-J., Hwang, T.-J., Hwu, H.-G., & Chen, W. J. (2002). Deficits in Sustained Attention in Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders: Stable Versus State- Dependent Markers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(6), 975-982. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.6.975
    47. Ma, D. S., Correll, J., & Wittenbrink, B. (2015). The Chicago face database: A free stimulus set of faces and norming data. Behavior Research Methods, 47(4), 1122-1135. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0532-5
    48. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224-253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033- 295X.98.2.224
    49. Masuda, T., Ellsworth, P. C., Mesquita, B., Leu, J., Tanida, S., & Van de Veerdonk, E. (2008). Placing the face in context: Cultural differences in the perception of facial emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(3), 365-381. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.3.365
    50. Masuda, T., & Nisbett, R. E. (2001). Attending holistically versus analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 922-934. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.922
    51. Matsumoto, D. (1989). Cultural Influences on the Perception of Emotion. Journal of Cross- Cultural Psychology, 20(1), 92-105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022189201006
    52. Matsumoto, D. (2002). Methodological requirements to test a possible in-group advantage in judging emotions across cultures: Comment on Elfenbein and Ambady (2002) and evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 236-242. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033- 2909.128.2.236
    53. McLean, S. P., Garza, J. P., Wiebe, S. A., Dodd, M. D., Smith, K. B., Hibbing, J. R., & Espy, K. A. (2014). Applying the Flanker Task to Political Psychology: A Research Note: Flanker Task. Political Psychology, 35(6), 831-840. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12056
    54. Ng, R. M. K., Lee, C. K., Liu, J., Luo, J., Zu, S., Mi, S., & Li, Z. (2017). Psychotherapy Services in China: Current Provisions and Future Development. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 47(2), 87-94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-016-9345-4
    55. Nielsen, M., Haun, D., Kärtner, J., & Legare, C. H. (2017). The persistent sampling bias in developmental psychology: A call to action. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 162, 31-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.04.017
    56. Nisbett, R. E., & Masuda, T. (2003). Culture and point of view. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(19), 11163-11170. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1934527100
    57. Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108(2), 291-310. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.291
    58. Olderbak, S., Wilhelm, O., Hildebrandt, A., & Quoidbach, J. (2019). Sex differences in facial emotion perception ability across the lifespan. Cognition and Emotion, 33(3), 579-588. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1454403
    59. Patton, J. H., Stanford, M. S., & Barratt, E. S. (1995). Factor structure of the barratt impulsiveness scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51(6), 768-774. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6<768::AID-JCLP2270510607>3.0.CO;2- 1
    60. Peng, S., Liu, C. H., & Hu, P. (2021). Effects of subjective similarity and culture on ensemble perception of faces. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 83(3), 1070-1079. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-020-02133-9
    61. Politis, A., Lykouras, L., Mourtzouchou, P., & Christodoulou, G. N. (2004). Attentional disturbances in patients with unipolar psychotic depression: A selective and sustained attention study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 45(6), 452-459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2004.07.007
    62. Quesque, F., Coutrot, A., Cox, S., de Souza Leonardo Cruz, Baez, S., Felipe, C. J., Hannah, M.- P., Emma, F., Neely-Prado, A., Florencia, C. M., Luciana, C., Gada, M., Jennifer, K., Anne, B., Nathalie, P., Maura, C., Trujillo, C., Sebastián, G. J., Fittipaldi, S., … Bertoux, M. (2020). Culture shapes our understanding of others' thoughts and emotions: An investigation across 12 countries [Preprint]. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/tg2ay
    63. Rad, M. S., Martingano, A. J., & Ginges, J. (2018). Toward a psychology of Homo sapiens: Making psychological science more representative of the human population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(45), 11401-11405. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721165115
    64. Rankin, C. H., Abrams, T., Barry, R. J., Bhatnagar, S., Clayton, D. F., Colombo, J., Coppola, G., Geyer, M. A., Glanzman, D. L., Marsland, S., McSweeney, F. K., Wilson, D. A., Wu, C.- F., & Thompson, R. F. (2009). Habituation revisited: An updated and revised description of the behavioral characteristics of habituation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 92(2), 135-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2008.09.012
    65. Robertson, I. H., Manly, T., Andrade, J., Baddeley, B. T., & Yiend, J. (1997). `Oops!': Performance correlates of everyday attentional failures in traumatic brain injured and normal subjects. Neuropsychologia, 35(6), 747-758. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028- 3932(97)00015-8
    66. Sanders, L. M. J., Hortobágyi, T., Balasingham, M., Van der Zee, E. A., & van Heuvelen, M. J. G. (2018). Psychometric Properties of a Flanker Task in a Sample of Patients with Dementia: A Pilot Study. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Extra, 8(3), 382-392. https://doi.org/10.1159/000493750
    67. Sarter, M., Givens, B., & Bruno, J. P. (2001). The cognitive neuroscience of sustained attention: Where top-down meets bottom-up. Brain Research Reviews, 35(2), 146-160. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0173(01)00044-3
    68. Schwarzer, G. (2022). Meta-Analysis with R (6.1-0) [Computer software]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21416-0
    69. Simcock, G., McLoughlin, L. T., De Regt, T., Broadhouse, K. M., Beaudequin, D., Lagopoulos, J., & Hermens, D. F. (2020). Associations between Facial Emotion Recognition and Mental Health in Early Adolescence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17010330
    70. Spielberger, C. D. (1983). State-trait anxiety inventory for adults. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t06496-000
    71. Stanford, M. S., Mathias, C. W., Dougherty, D. M., Lake, S. L., Anderson, N. E., & Patton, J. H. (2009). Fifty years of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale: An update and review. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(5), 385-395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.04.008
    72. Stanley, J. T., Zhang, X., Fung, H. H., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2013). Cultural differences in gaze and emotion recognition: Americans contrast more than Chinese. Emotion, 13(1), 36-46. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029209
    73. Torchiano, M. (2020). effsize: Efficient Effect Size Computation (0.8.1) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/effsize/index.html
    74. Vogel, S. C., Esterman, M., DeGutis, J., Wilmer, J. B., Ressler, K. J., & Germine, L. T. (2020). Childhood Adversity and Dimensional Variations in Adult Sustained Attention. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 691. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00691
    75. Wilson, J. P., Hugenberg, K., & Rule, N. O. (2017). Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: From size to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 59-80. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000092
    76. Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017). The Relationship Between Eyewitness Confidence and Identification Accuracy: A New Synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(1), 10-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616686966
    77. World Health Organization. (2017). Depression and other common mental disorders: Global health estimates. World Health Organization; WHO IRIS. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/254610
    78. Xu, Z., Gahr, M., Xiang, Y., Kingdon, D., Rüsch, N., & Wang, G. (2022). The state of mental health care in China. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 69, 102975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102975
    79. Yang, T., Yang, Z., Xu, G., Gao, D., Zhang, Z., Wang, H., Liu, S., Han, L., Zhu, Z., Tian, Y., Huang, Y., Zhao, L., Zhong, K., Shi, B., Li, J., Fu, S., Liang, P., Banissy, M. J., & Sun, P. (2020). Tsinghua facial expression database -A database of facial expressions in Chinese young and older women and men: Development and validation. PLOS ONE, 15(4), e0231304. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231304
    80. Yang, T., Zhang, L., Xu, G., Yang, Z., Luo, Y., Li, Z., Zhong, K., Shi, B., Zhao, L., & Sun, P. (2022). Investigating taste sensitivity, chemesthetic sensation and their relationship with emotion perception in Chinese young and older adults. Food Quality and Preference, 96, 104406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2021.104406
    81. Zhang, S., Liu, X., Yang, X., Shu, Y., Liu, N., Zhang, D., & Liu, Y.-J. (2021). The Influence of Key Facial Features on Recognition of Emotion in Cartoon Faces. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.687974
    580 California St., Suite 400
    San Francisco, CA, 94104
    © 2025 Academia. All rights reserved