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Travelling the Korosko Road: Archaeological Exploration in Sudan’s Eastern Desert

Profile image of Derek WelsbyDerek Welsby

2020

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The journey 48 Addendum: other likely areas of worship dedicated to goats 53 6. Traces of the Past-Second Expedition 56-61 Alfredo and Angelo Castiglioni The prehistoric sites documented during the expedition 56 vi 7. The Journey to Onib Crater (el-Hofra) 62-67 Alfredo and Angelo Castiglioni The route The Onib crater A Beja village 8. The Nubian and Pharaonic Ceramic Materials Summary Bibliography 214 viii List of Tables 8. The Nubian and Pharaonic Ceramic Materials 8.1. Distribution of generic Middle Nubian (MN), Kerma (K), Pan-Grave (PG), Gash Group (GG) and 79 Egyptian (EG) materials in the sites going back to Protohistoric phase. To be noted is the frequent co-occurrence of different cultural components at the same site. 9. Imported wares in the Sudanese Eastern Desert: finds from the CeRDO Survey 2004 9.1. Distribution of the different ceramic classes of the CeRDO 2004 expedition. 86 10. Preliminary study of the macro-lithic tools collected by CeRDO in the Sudanese Eastern Desert List of Figures 8. The Nubian and Pharaonic Ceramic Materials 8.1. a) wall sherd of an open bowl with traces of coiling technique from site RD8; b) rounded base of a vessel from site RD22; c) pointed base of a vessel from site AP; d) rim sherd of a bowl with wavy incised decorative pattern from site U2; e) rim sherd of a bowl with impressed wavy decoration from site U9 (scale in cm). 8.2. a-b) body sherds decorated with incised arches from site U14; c-d) body sherds decorated with impressed arches from site U14; e) body sherd decorated with densely packed lines of bosses from site V (scale in cm). 8.3. a) rim sherd of a bowl with a pivoting stamp technique decoration resulting in a herringbone pattern from site R65; b) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site R35; c) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with pivoting stamp technique resulting in a more spaced pattern of dots from site ED22; d) rim sherd of a jar decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site U2; e) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site AQ (scale in cm). 8.4. a) fragment of a rippled ware black topped ware cup from site RD19; b) rim sherd of a closed cup with rim band of notches and herringbone incised pattern from site D3 (drawing by K. Sadr, see Sadr et al. 1993, fig. 4.3); c) fragment of the body of a vessel with rocker plain pattern from site AH; d) rim sherd of a closed bowl with thickened rim decorated with rocker plain pattern from site D5 (drawing by K. Sadr from CeRDO 1994) (scale in cm). 8.5. a) rim sherd of a bowl with wiped surfaces and notches on the lip from site R43; b) rim sherd of a jar decorated with patterns of spaced parallel shallow lines from a site in the Wadi Tonaidba (U18); c) rim sherd of a scraped bowl with regular notches on the lip from site RD3; d) rim sherd of a cup with spaced rows of very regular light notches on the external surface from site RD3; e) body sherds of vessels decorated with bands of parallel spaced comb impressed notches from a site in the Wadi Tonaidba (U18) (scale in cm). 8.6. Pierced ceramic disk usually associated with Clayton rings, from site 42 near Jebel Umm Nabari (scale in cm). 8.7. a) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with horizontal incised lines on the body and small impressed notches on the top of the rim from site U19 in the upper Wadi Elei; b) body sherd of a bowl with the body covered by incised lozenges or triangular sectors filled with parallel oblique incisions from site AL; c) rim sherd of a bowl with a band of incised crossing lines covering the upper part of the body from site R65; d) rim sherd of a black topped bowl with a slightly "S" profile, and with crossing bands of oblique lines covering the upper part of the vessel from site U5; e) wall sherd of a bowl with a band of oblique incisions framed by accurate horizontal bands of notches covering the upper part of the body from site R49; f) rim sherd of a bowl with a rim band of oblique crossing incisions forming triangles from site U16 (scale in cm). 8.8. a) rim sherd of a black topped cup with a red band interrupting the black one below the rim from site AH; b) rim sherd of a jar with horizontal grooves covering the body and multiple rim bands of oblique incised irregular notches from site D3 (drawing by K. Sadr, see Sadr et al. 1993, fig. 4.3); c) sherd of a bowl with slightly everted thickened triangular in shape rim with oblique crossing incised lines from site ED16; d) rim sherd of a bowl with slightly everted, thickened, triangular in shape rim and lightly oblique grooves from site ED16; e) body sherd of a vessel decorated with almost horizontal irregular roughly parallel lines on the external surface from site U14; f) wall sherd of a bowl with rounded base reinforced by a stratum of clay from site U9 (scale in cm). 8.9. a) rim sherd of a black topped bowl with rim band consisting of a double zigzag line and notches on the lip from site U18 in the Wadi Tonaidba; b) rim sherd of a bowl with rim band consisting of impressed notches from site U18 in the Wadi Tonaidba; c) scraped body sherd from site RD18; d) body sherd with finger nail decoration from site RD15; d) body sherd of a Marl A3 jar from site U13; e) fragment of body of Marl A3 vessel from site U13; f) (scale in cm). 8.10. a) fragment of multi-footed vessel decorated with triangles filled by crossing parallel incisions forming an "X-motif" from site R37; b) fragment of multi-footed vessel decorated with panels of notches framed by incised lines from site R37; c) rim sherd of a cup with rim band consisting of alternatively oblique incised parallel lines associated with oblique bands of parallel incised lines apparently covering a large portion of the vessel from site R68; d) rim sherd of a cup characterized by a pattern of bands of notches framed by parallel incised lines associated with a rim band of alternatively oblique incised parallel lines from site R38; e) rim sherd of a cup characterized by incised "X-motifs" forming a band of xx panels below the rim from site R 57; f) rim sherd of a large closed bowl with thickened and pointed rim, decorated by a band of impressed comma-shaped notches from site R16; g) wall sherd decorated with a pattern of impressed comma-shaped motifs from site U14; h) wall sherd decorated with a pattern of framed bands of crossing lines associated with other geometric zoned incised decorations from site U19; i) sherd with a pattern of incised multiple superimposed "waves" from site R26 (scale in cm). 8.11. Graph showing the frequencies of sites of the different phases recorded in the CeRDO explorations in the Sudanese Eastern Desert. 9. Imported wares in the Sudanese Eastern Desert: finds from the CeRDO Survey 2004 9.1. Satellite image of the study area (Landsat Copernicus, Google Earth 2017). 9.2. GIS elaboration of the study area with the geolocalization of the sites recorded by the CeRDO expeditions, as well as all the sites, oases, wells, wadis and details from ancient geographical maps with information about the trajectory of caravan routes and the location of old towns. From these sources combined, it emerges that the caravan routes followed the course of the wadis to avoid the obstacles presented by mountains along the route and passed near wells and oases that enabled survival in the desert (Ciusani et al. 2017). 9.3: Mine Site R39. 9.4. Fresh fractures of samples 1-7, left macro, right digital microscope, 100x. 87 9.5. Fresh fractures of samples 8-16, left macro, right digital microscope, 100x.

Figures (510)

Plate 2.1. View of Wadi Terfowi. During our first archaeological expeditions in the Nubian Desert of Sudan, from 1989 to 1994, we passed several times through Wadi 'Terfowi (Latitude 21° 00.283’ N; Longtitude 34° 03.217 E) (Plate 2.1). A few dozen kilometres long and 100m wide, the wadi is a green oasis surrounded by vast stretches of
Plate 2.1. View of Wadi Terfowi. During our first archaeological expeditions in the Nubian Desert of Sudan, from 1989 to 1994, we passed several times through Wadi 'Terfowi (Latitude 21° 00.283’ N; Longtitude 34° 03.217 E) (Plate 2.1). A few dozen kilometres long and 100m wide, the wadi is a green oasis surrounded by vast stretches of
We come upon a campsite of the Beja Bisharin. A nearby well (site C16.1) about 10m deep provides water to the com- munity. It is probably ancient, as the skilful stonework seems to confirm (Plate 2.2). On the rocks, at the side of the well, we see many graffiti depicting bat- tle scenes. Men face each other holding long swords and pro- tecting themselves with round shields (Plate 2.3). It is hard to date these representations: they could be quite ancient, as the patina in the grooves suggests. It is impossible to make any assumptions based solely on the types of weapons represented: over the centuries, the customs of the desert people have re- Plate 2.2. Interior of the well by the Beja Bisharin campsite.
We come upon a campsite of the Beja Bisharin. A nearby well (site C16.1) about 10m deep provides water to the com- munity. It is probably ancient, as the skilful stonework seems to confirm (Plate 2.2). On the rocks, at the side of the well, we see many graffiti depicting bat- tle scenes. Men face each other holding long swords and pro- tecting themselves with round shields (Plate 2.3). It is hard to date these representations: they could be quite ancient, as the patina in the grooves suggests. It is impossible to make any assumptions based solely on the types of weapons represented: over the centuries, the customs of the desert people have re- Plate 2.2. Interior of the well by the Beja Bisharin campsite.
Plate 2.4. Wadi Terfowi, mine settlement D195. In mine D15, there is the outline of a mosque and rotating millstones (Plate 2.5). n the small settlement E9, we note the outline of another mosque, fragments of medieval pottery and again rotating mill stones. In mine D16, a few kilometres north of mine D15, there are instead many grindstones; the oldest could be of Egyptian origin (Plate 2.6). In mine C13, we find fragments of what might be Pharaonic pottery. It is possible that this gold -rich area was mined over a very long time, from the Pharaonic era to the Arab medieval period.
Plate 2.4. Wadi Terfowi, mine settlement D195. In mine D15, there is the outline of a mosque and rotating millstones (Plate 2.5). n the small settlement E9, we note the outline of another mosque, fragments of medieval pottery and again rotating mill stones. In mine D16, a few kilometres north of mine D15, there are instead many grindstones; the oldest could be of Egyptian origin (Plate 2.6). In mine C13, we find fragments of what might be Pharaonic pottery. It is possible that this gold -rich area was mined over a very long time, from the Pharaonic era to the Arab medieval period.
Plate 2.5. Mine D15, rotating millstones.
Plate 2.5. Mine D15, rotating millstones.
Plate 2.6. Mine D 16, grinding mills.
Plate 2.6. Mine D 16, grinding mills.
Plate 2.10. Kabeseit mine, bird's-eye view (from aerial balloon) of the central sector
Plate 2.10. Kabeseit mine, bird's-eye view (from aerial balloon) of the central sector
Plate 2.11. Site C12, circular platform mound, disturbed. Just north or the conmuence of the two wadis, we find a large mound of soil and pebbles about 17m in diameter and 2m high, site C18. The photo- graphs taken from the balloon indicate that it could be a man-made structure, perhaps a tomb. A test excavation at the top revealed instead a compact rock layer at a depth of
Plate 2.11. Site C12, circular platform mound, disturbed. Just north or the conmuence of the two wadis, we find a large mound of soil and pebbles about 17m in diameter and 2m high, site C18. The photo- graphs taken from the balloon indicate that it could be a man-made structure, perhaps a tomb. A test excavation at the top revealed instead a compact rock layer at a depth of
Plate 2.12. Ceramic stand with engraved decoration, probably a cross.
Plate 2.12. Ceramic stand with engraved decoration, probably a cross.
Plate 2.13. Wadi Gwanikam, disturbed burial places.
Plate 2.13. Wadi Gwanikam, disturbed burial places.
We excavated a number of circular platform mounds during out archaeological expeditions, which furnished chronological information and, in many cases, important grave goods (Plate 2.15). Site C19, exc the remains of a2 avated during the fifth expedition, revealed 1-25 year old individual, probably a young male. Some leather fragments on which the body lay, allowed us to date the remains to the later 7* century AD, Site D4, excavated during t The dating of org he 1993 expedition, held a child’s skeleton. anic material gave us a date in the mid 8" century AD. These dates seem to confirm that the Eastern Desert was still fu lly controlled by the Beja at that time. The Arabs of Egypt discovered the gold mines (which had been abandoned for centuries and long forgotten) only between AD 820 and 830. t was during a punitive expedition against the Beja, guilty of having attacked the peaceful Nile Valley villages, that the Arabs, driving into the heart of the desert, encountered a previously unknown mining world. Plate 2.14. Aerial view of the large mound C18. Probable burial place, though excavation revealed no finds.
We excavated a number of circular platform mounds during out archaeological expeditions, which furnished chronological information and, in many cases, important grave goods (Plate 2.15). Site C19, exc the remains of a2 avated during the fifth expedition, revealed 1-25 year old individual, probably a young male. Some leather fragments on which the body lay, allowed us to date the remains to the later 7* century AD, Site D4, excavated during t The dating of org he 1993 expedition, held a child’s skeleton. anic material gave us a date in the mid 8" century AD. These dates seem to confirm that the Eastern Desert was still fu lly controlled by the Beja at that time. The Arabs of Egypt discovered the gold mines (which had been abandoned for centuries and long forgotten) only between AD 820 and 830. t was during a punitive expedition against the Beja, guilty of having attacked the peaceful Nile Valley villages, that the Arabs, driving into the heart of the desert, encountered a previously unknown mining world. Plate 2.14. Aerial view of the large mound C18. Probable burial place, though excavation revealed no finds.
Four kilometres east of site D24, we find a large isolated stone circle, site C23, about 25m in diameter: almost in the centre stands a circular platform mound. Excavated in 1993, it revealed fragments of a leather blanket that allowed us to date the skeleton of the deceased to around the 7" century AD. It was the body of a youth, laid in a foetal position with five small golden discs as funerary ornaments (Plates 2.16 and 2.17). The grave had been built on a much older burial structure. In fact, in the stone citcle that surrounded it, we found traces of an ancient hearth and bone fragments of cattle and sheep. The charcoal was dated to c. 3100 BC. Outside the circle, on the south side, we unearthed the articulated skeleton of a dog and other sheep and cattle bones, perhaps offerings to the long ago deceased individual. A few metres from site C23, we
Four kilometres east of site D24, we find a large isolated stone circle, site C23, about 25m in diameter: almost in the centre stands a circular platform mound. Excavated in 1993, it revealed fragments of a leather blanket that allowed us to date the skeleton of the deceased to around the 7" century AD. It was the body of a youth, laid in a foetal position with five small golden discs as funerary ornaments (Plates 2.16 and 2.17). The grave had been built on a much older burial structure. In fact, in the stone citcle that surrounded it, we found traces of an ancient hearth and bone fragments of cattle and sheep. The charcoal was dated to c. 3100 BC. Outside the circle, on the south side, we unearthed the articulated skeleton of a dog and other sheep and cattle bones, perhaps offerings to the long ago deceased individual. A few metres from site C23, we
Plate 2.17. Site C23, inhumation, 7” century AD. Plate 2.18. Site C24, burial dated to the 8” century AD through the analysis of organic remains.
Plate 2.17. Site C23, inhumation, 7” century AD. Plate 2.18. Site C24, burial dated to the 8” century AD through the analysis of organic remains.
Plate 2.16. Site C23, large stone enclosure with a central mound, aerial view.
Plate 2.16. Site C23, large stone enclosure with a central mound, aerial view.
who, we are told, was the first to discover the gold that still existed in the jebel, despite the uninterrupted exploitation over hundreds of years by the ancient miners: pre-Islamic Beja, medieval Arabs and perhaps even the inhabitants of Kerma. The most important work, namely the crushing of the auriferous quartz blocks, is carried out among the ruins of an ancient defensive building (Plate 3.1). This activity was Plate 3.1. Jebel en-Nigeim, current exploitation of the auriferous quartz inside ancient structures and reuse of lithic tools.
who, we are told, was the first to discover the gold that still existed in the jebel, despite the uninterrupted exploitation over hundreds of years by the ancient miners: pre-Islamic Beja, medieval Arabs and perhaps even the inhabitants of Kerma. The most important work, namely the crushing of the auriferous quartz blocks, is carried out among the ruins of an ancient defensive building (Plate 3.1). This activity was Plate 3.1. Jebel en-Nigeim, current exploitation of the auriferous quartz inside ancient structures and reuse of lithic tools.
The area contains several veins of auriferous quartz, which, as Diodorus emphasized, “... 2s a white stone’ that stands out against the dark colour of the surrounding rock. At the Jebel en-Nigeim mine, the quartz is broken by heating the vein with fire. The fragments are accumulated at the base of tunnels, dug by generations of miners (Plate 3.2).’The method is the Plate 3.2. Ancient Jebel en-Nigeim mine, with an accumu- lation of quartz fragments in the foreground.
The area contains several veins of auriferous quartz, which, as Diodorus emphasized, “... 2s a white stone’ that stands out against the dark colour of the surrounding rock. At the Jebel en-Nigeim mine, the quartz is broken by heating the vein with fire. The fragments are accumulated at the base of tunnels, dug by generations of miners (Plate 3.2).’The method is the Plate 3.2. Ancient Jebel en-Nigeim mine, with an accumu- lation of quartz fragments in the foreground.
The miners of Jebel en-Nigeim assigned to the crushing process are young men at the peak of their strength and they perform this hard work using the old tools recovered from the mines as anvils. It takes a long time and a lot of physical effort to reduce the quartz fragments to ‘the size of a lentil’, as Diodorus related. A ring of straw and cloth surrounds the quartz pieces to prevent the splinters, shooting off under the hammer blows, from injuring the miners, especially in the eyes. Diodorus continued, “And the entire operations are directed by a skilled worker who studies the stone and points out the vein containing the metal (the gold) to the labourers.” This task is performed also in the Jebel en-Nigeim mine by a man who visually evaluates the gold content in the quartz. Then a quartz powder sample is washed in a pan with water to separate the gold flakes, and from this the specialist estimates whether the amount of gold recovered is enough to begin the hard excavation work (Plate 3.3).
The miners of Jebel en-Nigeim assigned to the crushing process are young men at the peak of their strength and they perform this hard work using the old tools recovered from the mines as anvils. It takes a long time and a lot of physical effort to reduce the quartz fragments to ‘the size of a lentil’, as Diodorus related. A ring of straw and cloth surrounds the quartz pieces to prevent the splinters, shooting off under the hammer blows, from injuring the miners, especially in the eyes. Diodorus continued, “And the entire operations are directed by a skilled worker who studies the stone and points out the vein containing the metal (the gold) to the labourers.” This task is performed also in the Jebel en-Nigeim mine by a man who visually evaluates the gold content in the quartz. Then a quartz powder sample is washed in a pan with water to separate the gold flakes, and from this the specialist estimates whether the amount of gold recovered is enough to begin the hard excavation work (Plate 3.3).
Plate 3.4. Jebel en-Nigeim, lithic mills removed by recent excavations using machines. Plate 3.5. Jebel en-Nigeim, damage to masonry structures caused by mechanical excavators.
Plate 3.4. Jebel en-Nigeim, lithic mills removed by recent excavations using machines. Plate 3.5. Jebel en-Nigeim, damage to masonry structures caused by mechanical excavators.
Our long stay allowed us to ascertain the damage caused by clandestine excavations in the archaeological area. We discovered that “test” excavations are conducted also within archaeological structures, frequently causing significant dam- age. In Mesolithic settlements, deep holes are dug inside the perimeter of the dwellings. Machines are used to dig close to the defensive settlements, churning the soil and quartz with no concern for any underlying structures. In some ancient working areas, the millstones were moved and the soil dug out to search for auriferous quartz blocks abandoned by the miners (Plate 3.4). The worst damage can be seen inside the masonry structures. Excavations carried out at the base of the walls caused them to collapse, destroying buildings that have stood for centuries (Plate 3.5). Fortunately, as we were told, this auriferous area is exploited for only about one month a year.
Our long stay allowed us to ascertain the damage caused by clandestine excavations in the archaeological area. We discovered that “test” excavations are conducted also within archaeological structures, frequently causing significant dam- age. In Mesolithic settlements, deep holes are dug inside the perimeter of the dwellings. Machines are used to dig close to the defensive settlements, churning the soil and quartz with no concern for any underlying structures. In some ancient working areas, the millstones were moved and the soil dug out to search for auriferous quartz blocks abandoned by the miners (Plate 3.4). The worst damage can be seen inside the masonry structures. Excavations carried out at the base of the walls caused them to collapse, destroying buildings that have stood for centuries (Plate 3.5). Fortunately, as we were told, this auriferous area is exploited for only about one month a year.
At the en-Nigeim mine, the mineral is first collected in sacks and then transported by camel to the Nile located about 100km away, following the Wadi Senateb and Wadi ‘Amur. At Abu Dis, on the banks of the Nile, some 20 Nubians separate the gold flakes from the raw mineral by panning (Plate 3.6). Plate 3.6. Nile, Abu Dis. Miners separate the gold flakes rom the raw mineral.
At the en-Nigeim mine, the mineral is first collected in sacks and then transported by camel to the Nile located about 100km away, following the Wadi Senateb and Wadi ‘Amur. At Abu Dis, on the banks of the Nile, some 20 Nubians separate the gold flakes from the raw mineral by panning (Plate 3.6). Plate 3.6. Nile, Abu Dis. Miners separate the gold flakes rom the raw mineral.
Plate 3.9. Jebel en-Nigeim, probable defensive or guard structure on the hilltop.
Plate 3.9. Jebel en-Nigeim, probable defensive or guard structure on the hilltop.
Plate 3.7. Jebel en-Nigeim, rotating millstones. Plate 3.8. Jebel en-Nigeim, cubic strikers.
Plate 3.7. Jebel en-Nigeim, rotating millstones. Plate 3.8. Jebel en-Nigeim, cubic strikers.
The most important auriferous zone (Jebel en-Nigeim)
The most important auriferous zone (Jebel en-Nigeim)
We notice a fence protected by walls with a construction that is still in good condition (Plate 3.12). It could have been
We notice a fence protected by walls with a construction that is still in good condition (Plate 3.12). It could have been
The old houses of the miners and inhabitants of Keyau Keyau en-Nafaab (site F7) is the most important settlement in the region. It lies in a vast plain at the confluence of Khor Kiau and Wadi Rebeide. At the centre of the settlement stands a fort with two towers at the corners that were probably built to control the southern valleys and those that open to the north (Plates 3.13 and 3.14). In front of the defensive struc- Plate 3.13. Keyau en-Nafaab, Site F'7. Defensive structure. ture, there is an area for working the auriferous quartz. The south tower is in good condition, while the north tower has partially collapsed. Maybe it was the more important tower, designed to control the caravans heading to or arriving from the north, the regions with the most gold mines (Plate 3.15). Far away against the horizon loom the mountains behind which Berenice Panchrysos lies hidden, more than 120km as the crow flies. The perimeter walls of the building are built with interlocking stones bonded with mud. The largest and best-preserved construction is at the centre of the complex with one side against the outer wall of the fort. Probably it was the home of the manager of the mine or the depositary for the auriferous dust.
The old houses of the miners and inhabitants of Keyau Keyau en-Nafaab (site F7) is the most important settlement in the region. It lies in a vast plain at the confluence of Khor Kiau and Wadi Rebeide. At the centre of the settlement stands a fort with two towers at the corners that were probably built to control the southern valleys and those that open to the north (Plates 3.13 and 3.14). In front of the defensive struc- Plate 3.13. Keyau en-Nafaab, Site F'7. Defensive structure. ture, there is an area for working the auriferous quartz. The south tower is in good condition, while the north tower has partially collapsed. Maybe it was the more important tower, designed to control the caravans heading to or arriving from the north, the regions with the most gold mines (Plate 3.15). Far away against the horizon loom the mountains behind which Berenice Panchrysos lies hidden, more than 120km as the crow flies. The perimeter walls of the building are built with interlocking stones bonded with mud. The largest and best-preserved construction is at the centre of the complex with one side against the outer wall of the fort. Probably it was the home of the manager of the mine or the depositary for the auriferous dust.
Plate 3.14 Keyau en-Nafaab, Site F7. Defensive structure, perimeter wall made of stones bonded with clay.
Plate 3.14 Keyau en-Nafaab, Site F7. Defensive structure, perimeter wall made of stones bonded with clay.
Plate 3.15. Keyau en-Nafaab, Site F7. Defensive structure, south tower.
Plate 3.15. Keyau en-Nafaab, Site F7. Defensive structure, south tower.
The long occupation of the site is also evident from the town’s great necropolis, which contains various types of Plate 3.16. Wadi Kian, ruins of a probable fortification.
The long occupation of the site is also evident from the town’s great necropolis, which contains various types of Plate 3.16. Wadi Kian, ruins of a probable fortification.
Plate 3.17. Keyau en-Nafaab, necropolis.
Plate 3.17. Keyau en-Nafaab, necropolis.
In the settlement of Avai (site F3) the miners’ dwellings are built with stones without binder, set one against the other. Large spaces enclosed by walls suggest that these are the common work areas (Plate 3.21). A fort, still in good condition, is situated at the cross roads of two wadis, again placed in a Plate 3.18. Kamba mine, site F4. Buildings at the sides of the wadt.
In the settlement of Avai (site F3) the miners’ dwellings are built with stones without binder, set one against the other. Large spaces enclosed by walls suggest that these are the common work areas (Plate 3.21). A fort, still in good condition, is situated at the cross roads of two wadis, again placed in a Plate 3.18. Kamba mine, site F4. Buildings at the sides of the wadt.
Plate 3.19. Kamba mine, site F4. Large rotating mills.
Plate 3.19. Kamba mine, site F4. Large rotating mills.
mountains can in fact channel the rainwater into the wadis with devastating effects. Other buildings wedged between the hills are located along the paths leading to the mines. Equipped with loopholes they controlled the excavation areas normally located on the upper slopes of the mountains. A probable control structure stands at the base of a hill: the massive walls Plate 3.23. Avai settlement, Site F3, another fortified structure probabt more ancient than the preceding.
mountains can in fact channel the rainwater into the wadis with devastating effects. Other buildings wedged between the hills are located along the paths leading to the mines. Equipped with loopholes they controlled the excavation areas normally located on the upper slopes of the mountains. A probable control structure stands at the base of a hill: the massive walls Plate 3.23. Avai settlement, Site F3, another fortified structure probabt more ancient than the preceding.
Plate 3.21. Avai settlement, Site F3. Plate 3.22. Avai settlement, Site 3, fortified structure at the intersection of two wadis.
Plate 3.21. Avai settlement, Site F3. Plate 3.22. Avai settlement, Site 3, fortified structure at the intersection of two wadis.
Plate 3.24. Duara el-Nafaab, Site F'1. Buildings among the hills. Plate 3.25. Duara en-Nafaab, Site F1. Probable fortified building or guard room for the auriferous dust.
Plate 3.24. Duara el-Nafaab, Site F'1. Buildings among the hills. Plate 3.25. Duara en-Nafaab, Site F1. Probable fortified building or guard room for the auriferous dust.
facing the centre of the wadi controlled the caravans coming from the north (Plate 3.24). Some imposing and articulated buildings in the settlement might have been the command post and storage depositary for the auriferous quartz (Plate 3.25); a structure without windows and with a single door was perhaps intended for this latter purpose. Not far away, a
facing the centre of the wadi controlled the caravans coming from the north (Plate 3.24). Some imposing and articulated buildings in the settlement might have been the command post and storage depositary for the auriferous quartz (Plate 3.25); a structure without windows and with a single door was perhaps intended for this latter purpose. Not far away, a
Plate 3.27. Jebel Abu Duheim, Site C31, Large circular platform mound. Plate 3.26. Duara en-Nafaab, probable water-retaining wall near the settlement.
Plate 3.27. Jebel Abu Duheim, Site C31, Large circular platform mound. Plate 3.26. Duara en-Nafaab, probable water-retaining wall near the settlement.
At the crater’s entrance, we see an isolated conical mound about 600mm high and 1.2m in diameter (site C29, Plate 3.28). It does not appear to have been violated like the other mounds of this type that we found. Our need to keep moving in order to explore as much of the area as possible did
At the crater’s entrance, we see an isolated conical mound about 600mm high and 1.2m in diameter (site C29, Plate 3.28). It does not appear to have been violated like the other mounds of this type that we found. Our need to keep moving in order to explore as much of the area as possible did
Plate 3.28. Orshab Crater, Site C29. Isolated conical tumulus.
Plate 3.28. Orshab Crater, Site C29. Isolated conical tumulus.
We leave the Orshab crater and Plate 3.30. Site head to the Sifia crater, about 45km to the north west. In the space of a few kilometres we come across three large coni- cal mounds, C28, C27 and, on a rise, C26 (Plate 3.29). These four tombs (C26-28 and the previously cited C29), positioned between the two craters, suggest the possibility that it was a place for the burial of socially important persons. We cross Plate 3.29. Sifia crater. Large conical tumulus in an elevated position.
We leave the Orshab crater and Plate 3.30. Site head to the Sifia crater, about 45km to the north west. In the space of a few kilometres we come across three large coni- cal mounds, C28, C27 and, on a rise, C26 (Plate 3.29). These four tombs (C26-28 and the previously cited C29), positioned between the two craters, suggest the possibility that it was a place for the burial of socially important persons. We cross Plate 3.29. Sifia crater. Large conical tumulus in an elevated position.
About 15km from Sifia, we notice a citcle of stones about 15m in diameter that enclose a mound (site C25, Plate 3.30). We head south. After about 90km, we find another isolated stone circle, about the same size as the first. The difference lies in the stones used, which are white and do not occur in this area (site C49.1, Plate 3.31). Continuing to explore the vast plain that stretches up to the Abu Siha mountain group, after about 120km we find the only palaeosol in a region that once certainly offered favourable conditions for human settlement. Among the sand, we recover a perfectly Plate 3.30. Site C2, large circular enclosure (about 15m in diameter) with a central tumulus.
About 15km from Sifia, we notice a citcle of stones about 15m in diameter that enclose a mound (site C25, Plate 3.30). We head south. After about 90km, we find another isolated stone circle, about the same size as the first. The difference lies in the stones used, which are white and do not occur in this area (site C49.1, Plate 3.31). Continuing to explore the vast plain that stretches up to the Abu Siha mountain group, after about 120km we find the only palaeosol in a region that once certainly offered favourable conditions for human settlement. Among the sand, we recover a perfectly Plate 3.30. Site C2, large circular enclosure (about 15m in diameter) with a central tumulus.
Plate 3.31. Site C49.1, Large circular structure with white stones not available locally.
Plate 3.31. Site C49.1, Large circular structure with white stones not available locally.
Plate 3.32. Site E10, hand-axe.
Plate 3.32. Site E10, hand-axe.
a wide plain about 100km in extent (north-south) that ends again in a mountainous area, the Umm Nabari massif. From the direction of Korosko it is quite easy to find the narrow passage, marked by the hoof prints of thousands of pack animals. One need just follow them. The same cannot be said for catavans coming from the south. Each can take a different path, creating a maze of overlapping tracks that widen out in every direction. For this reason, the entrance of the valley eading to the pass is marked by “a/amat”’ (acting as sign-posts) and low dry-stone walls. A crude arrow of stones with the tip pointing towards the passage indicates the shortest path. We see the remains of a low tower, still in fairly good condition. tis built in a strategic position, guarding the valley entrance on the south side and controlling the path to the Khashm el-Bab pass and its entrance on the north side (Plate 4.2). It Plate 4.2. Pass of Khashm el-Bab (‘the door lock”).
a wide plain about 100km in extent (north-south) that ends again in a mountainous area, the Umm Nabari massif. From the direction of Korosko it is quite easy to find the narrow passage, marked by the hoof prints of thousands of pack animals. One need just follow them. The same cannot be said for catavans coming from the south. Each can take a different path, creating a maze of overlapping tracks that widen out in every direction. For this reason, the entrance of the valley eading to the pass is marked by “a/amat”’ (acting as sign-posts) and low dry-stone walls. A crude arrow of stones with the tip pointing towards the passage indicates the shortest path. We see the remains of a low tower, still in fairly good condition. tis built in a strategic position, guarding the valley entrance on the south side and controlling the path to the Khashm el-Bab pass and its entrance on the north side (Plate 4.2). It Plate 4.2. Pass of Khashm el-Bab (‘the door lock”).
sent to the mines to keep the tallies (Plates 4.3 and 4.4). It is difficult to take good photographs. The inscriptions merge with the cracks and fissures of the rock.
sent to the mines to keep the tallies (Plates 4.3 and 4.4). It is difficult to take good photographs. The inscriptions merge with the cracks and fissures of the rock.
Plate 4.3. Pass of Khashm el-Bab, hieroglyphic inscriptions.
Plate 4.3. Pass of Khashm el-Bab, hieroglyphic inscriptions.
On the left side, just after the entrance, we can clearly see a hieroglyphic inscription on the rear wall dedicated to the god ‘Horus, lord of the desert’ (Plate 4.5). It was initially thought
On the left side, just after the entrance, we can clearly see a hieroglyphic inscription on the rear wall dedicated to the god ‘Horus, lord of the desert’ (Plate 4.5). It was initially thought
to include the name of an Egyptian scribe, but we now know that it refers to a native Kerma ruler. Once again, we had a stroke of luck. If it had not been for that unexpected stop, we would have passed right by the cave without noticing it. We take notes and several photographs. It is an important site. In the narrow shelter next to the hieroglyphic inscriptions, we also notice prehistoric graffiti depicting goats (Plate 4.6). At the base of the hill, in a lateral khor, we find the remains of a bivouac with ceramic fragments. We have travelled from Khashm el-Bab for about 60km without finding any water and there are still 50km left before we reach Jebel Umm Nabari, where we hope to restock our water supply. The Egyptian caravans heading south probably had the same problem. Plate 4.6. Prehistoric graffiti at the side of the inscription.
to include the name of an Egyptian scribe, but we now know that it refers to a native Kerma ruler. Once again, we had a stroke of luck. If it had not been for that unexpected stop, we would have passed right by the cave without noticing it. We take notes and several photographs. It is an important site. In the narrow shelter next to the hieroglyphic inscriptions, we also notice prehistoric graffiti depicting goats (Plate 4.6). At the base of the hill, in a lateral khor, we find the remains of a bivouac with ceramic fragments. We have travelled from Khashm el-Bab for about 60km without finding any water and there are still 50km left before we reach Jebel Umm Nabari, where we hope to restock our water supply. The Egyptian caravans heading south probably had the same problem. Plate 4.6. Prehistoric graffiti at the side of the inscription.
are only a few cattle, some with great horns. Five kilometres from there, we find the basin for collecting rainwater indicated by the Nubian camel driver (Plate 4.8), a natural deposit that induced people to stop. The walls are eroded and there is no sufficiently flat sandstone surface to carve an inscription. Plate 4.8. Ghelta in the Wadi Tonaidba.
are only a few cattle, some with great horns. Five kilometres from there, we find the basin for collecting rainwater indicated by the Nubian camel driver (Plate 4.8), a natural deposit that induced people to stop. The walls are eroded and there is no sufficiently flat sandstone surface to carve an inscription. Plate 4.8. Ghelta in the Wadi Tonaidba.
We spend the night near the cave and at first light, we continue toward Jebel Umm Nabari, heading south-southeast. After about 30km, we follow Wadi Tonaidba and immediately dis- cover a hieroglyphic inscription standing out clearly against the dark rock. It reads, “The mayor Hornakht, son of Pen- niut deputy commander of the troops of Miam (Aniba)”. It is a very exciting moment. This inscription confirms that an Egyptian military force had been present in this desert region. Below the inscription, the wall is covered with prehistoric graffiti. They show mostly herds of goats (Plate 4.7). There Plate 4.7. Wadi Tonaidba, prehistoric graffiti and hieroglyphic inscriptions.
We spend the night near the cave and at first light, we continue toward Jebel Umm Nabari, heading south-southeast. After about 30km, we follow Wadi Tonaidba and immediately dis- cover a hieroglyphic inscription standing out clearly against the dark rock. It reads, “The mayor Hornakht, son of Pen- niut deputy commander of the troops of Miam (Aniba)”. It is a very exciting moment. This inscription confirms that an Egyptian military force had been present in this desert region. Below the inscription, the wall is covered with prehistoric graffiti. They show mostly herds of goats (Plate 4.7). There Plate 4.7. Wadi Tonaidba, prehistoric graffiti and hieroglyphic inscriptions.
tion referring to the same personage (Plate 4.10). We crowd in: words are superfluous and the Sudanese inspector’s face opens into a bright smile. It is a simple graffito but for us it is very important. It is further evidence that the Egyptians came here through the desert. Plate 4.10. Wadi Tonaidba, hieroglyphic inscription opposite the previous one.
tion referring to the same personage (Plate 4.10). We crowd in: words are superfluous and the Sudanese inspector’s face opens into a bright smile. It is a simple graffito but for us it is very important. It is further evidence that the Egyptians came here through the desert. Plate 4.10. Wadi Tonaidba, hieroglyphic inscription opposite the previous one.
Ten kilometres further south we reach a cave. It is about 60m long and on average about 6m high, excavated by an ancient long-disappeared river that opened an almost straight tunnel through the hill. We enter. The shade and the slight current of air created by the opposite opening bring us unexpected relief. We advance in the penumbra. Then, when our eyes have become accustomed to the dim light, we see a hieroglyphic inscription on the right wall, almost at the entrance of the cave. It reads, “Chief of Tehkhet (Debeira) Paitsy” (Plate 4.9). Facing it, on the opposite wall, there is another inscrip- Plate 4.9. Wadi Tonaidba, hieroglyphic inscription 10km south of the previous one.
Ten kilometres further south we reach a cave. It is about 60m long and on average about 6m high, excavated by an ancient long-disappeared river that opened an almost straight tunnel through the hill. We enter. The shade and the slight current of air created by the opposite opening bring us unexpected relief. We advance in the penumbra. Then, when our eyes have become accustomed to the dim light, we see a hieroglyphic inscription on the right wall, almost at the entrance of the cave. It reads, “Chief of Tehkhet (Debeira) Paitsy” (Plate 4.9). Facing it, on the opposite wall, there is another inscrip- Plate 4.9. Wadi Tonaidba, hieroglyphic inscription 10km south of the previous one.
Plate 4.11. Umm Fit-Fit, extended mining settlement.
Plate 4.11. Umm Fit-Fit, extended mining settlement.
Plate 4.12. Probable temporary settlement.
Plate 4.12. Probable temporary settlement.
Plate 4.13. Probable external area for quartz processing.
Plate 4.13. Probable external area for quartz processing.
Nabari (Plate 4.16) is surely the most important and longest exploited mine. It was reopened at the beginning of the last century during the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. First ex- cavated by the Egyptians (pottery fragments and numerous grindstones confirm this), it was later re-used in the medieval Islamic period. It is now abandoned. From the expedition diary, 1990, late in the afternoon: “We left Station 6 and as we head west, the massif takes shape, rising darkly above the dazzling expanse of sand. The scenery is unreal, as are the structures that stand out against a bleached sky at the foot of the hills. The buildings with a rectangular plan, some built with stones, others, taller, with sun-dried bricks, cast their shadows on the sand that the sun, now low on the horizon, stretches and deforms into fantastic geometric shapes. On the slopes, well shafts that plunge into the heart of the hills, deep chasms from which tons of auriferous quartz were extracted. Plate 4.14. Wadi Nesari, dwelling with niches formed in the inner wall. Plate 4.15. Alar, an example of mining settlement organised at the sides of the main axial road.
Nabari (Plate 4.16) is surely the most important and longest exploited mine. It was reopened at the beginning of the last century during the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. First ex- cavated by the Egyptians (pottery fragments and numerous grindstones confirm this), it was later re-used in the medieval Islamic period. It is now abandoned. From the expedition diary, 1990, late in the afternoon: “We left Station 6 and as we head west, the massif takes shape, rising darkly above the dazzling expanse of sand. The scenery is unreal, as are the structures that stand out against a bleached sky at the foot of the hills. The buildings with a rectangular plan, some built with stones, others, taller, with sun-dried bricks, cast their shadows on the sand that the sun, now low on the horizon, stretches and deforms into fantastic geometric shapes. On the slopes, well shafts that plunge into the heart of the hills, deep chasms from which tons of auriferous quartz were extracted. Plate 4.14. Wadi Nesari, dwelling with niches formed in the inner wall. Plate 4.15. Alar, an example of mining settlement organised at the sides of the main axial road.
Plate 4.17. Umm Nabari, accumulation of quartz powder, remains of the extraction process. Plate 4.16. Umm Nabari, A1. Ancient mine reopened at the begin- ning of the last century during the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
Plate 4.17. Umm Nabari, accumulation of quartz powder, remains of the extraction process. Plate 4.16. Umm Nabari, A1. Ancient mine reopened at the begin- ning of the last century during the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
Though not planned in our programme, we encounter and document graffiti found 25km west of Jebel Umm Nabari. Two representations on the same sandstone surface record two moments of prehistoric activity. The first shows two cows, one of which, in the foreground, has distinctive udders, presumably an animal that was bred. In the second, a hunter armed with bow and arrow is shooting a gazelle. The two graffiti have the same patina and execution technique and are presumably contemporary (Plates 4.18 and 4.19). Plate 4.18. Prehistoric graffiti, 25km west of Jebel Umm Nabari.
Though not planned in our programme, we encounter and document graffiti found 25km west of Jebel Umm Nabari. Two representations on the same sandstone surface record two moments of prehistoric activity. The first shows two cows, one of which, in the foreground, has distinctive udders, presumably an animal that was bred. In the second, a hunter armed with bow and arrow is shooting a gazelle. The two graffiti have the same patina and execution technique and are presumably contemporary (Plates 4.18 and 4.19). Plate 4.18. Prehistoric graffiti, 25km west of Jebel Umm Nabari.
Plate 4.20. Excavations in search for alluvial gold, area of the Mosei and Nabi mines. At about 20km east of Jebel Umm Nabari, an “alama”’, situated on the top of an isolated hill, is a marker that can be seen from a great distance in a flood plain with almost no obstacles. It directed the caravans to the mines of Mosei and Nabi. There are many grindstones in the Mosei mine, while extensive trench-type surface mining excavations are evident in the Nabi mine, all signs of ancient gold mining exploita- tion. The a/ama also indicates a vast auriferous region with large quartz monoliths almost completely dismantled by the miners and large areas of surface excavations in seatch of alluvial gold (Plate 4.20). In addition to the gold contained
Plate 4.20. Excavations in search for alluvial gold, area of the Mosei and Nabi mines. At about 20km east of Jebel Umm Nabari, an “alama”’, situated on the top of an isolated hill, is a marker that can be seen from a great distance in a flood plain with almost no obstacles. It directed the caravans to the mines of Mosei and Nabi. There are many grindstones in the Mosei mine, while extensive trench-type surface mining excavations are evident in the Nabi mine, all signs of ancient gold mining exploita- tion. The a/ama also indicates a vast auriferous region with large quartz monoliths almost completely dismantled by the miners and large areas of surface excavations in seatch of alluvial gold (Plate 4.20). In addition to the gold contained
Plate 4.19. Prehistoric graffiti, 25km west of Jebel Umm Nabari.
Plate 4.19. Prehistoric graffiti, 25km west of Jebel Umm Nabari.
Plate 4.21. Auriferous regions of Wawat and Amu. miners. Other mines, probably exploited in pharaonic times, are three settlements in Egyptian territory, mines A4, B32 and Umm Qarayat, all located along the lower Wadi Allaqi. A4: numerous circular and rectangular dry-stone buildings scattered along the edge of the wadi; on the hills, traces of excavations “in trenches” (Plate 4.22). B32: the mine is indicated by an “a/ama’’; there are numer- ous dry-stone constructions of circular plan and a chute for washing. Near a building, we find two vessels (Plate 4.23).
Plate 4.21. Auriferous regions of Wawat and Amu. miners. Other mines, probably exploited in pharaonic times, are three settlements in Egyptian territory, mines A4, B32 and Umm Qarayat, all located along the lower Wadi Allaqi. A4: numerous circular and rectangular dry-stone buildings scattered along the edge of the wadi; on the hills, traces of excavations “in trenches” (Plate 4.22). B32: the mine is indicated by an “a/ama’’; there are numer- ous dry-stone constructions of circular plan and a chute for washing. Near a building, we find two vessels (Plate 4.23).
Plate 4.22. Lower Wadi Allaqi, mine A4.
Plate 4.22. Lower Wadi Allaqi, mine A4.
Plate 4.23. Mine B32, ceramic vessel in situ.
Plate 4.23. Mine B32, ceramic vessel in situ.
Plate 4.24. Abu Fas mine (A7).
Plate 4.24. Abu Fas mine (A7).
Plate 4.25. Abu Fas mine (A7), chute for washing the auriferous dust.
Plate 4.25. Abu Fas mine (A7), chute for washing the auriferous dust.
C53, hills of Wadi Abaraga: four fortifications built prob- ably to defend the mines. The buildings, well preserved, are made of dry-stone walls. The walls of the main fort, with a square plan, are 10m long and equipped with loopholes. Inside the construction, there is a small rectangular room, perhaps the depositary for the auriferous quartz dust (Plate 4.27). Plate 4.27. Wadi Abaraga, fortified structure probably of the medieval period.
C53, hills of Wadi Abaraga: four fortifications built prob- ably to defend the mines. The buildings, well preserved, are made of dry-stone walls. The walls of the main fort, with a square plan, are 10m long and equipped with loopholes. Inside the construction, there is a small rectangular room, perhaps the depositary for the auriferous quartz dust (Plate 4.27). Plate 4.27. Wadi Abaraga, fortified structure probably of the medieval period.
Plate 4.26. Wadi Abaraga mine. C54, Wadi Abaraga (Plate 4.26): some dozens of dry-stone constructions of circular plan, generally isolated. Wheel- turned Aswani pottery dating to AD 700-850 (W. Y. Adams, pers. comm.). No circular rotating millstones. Trench-type mining excavations, almost completely silted up.
Plate 4.26. Wadi Abaraga mine. C54, Wadi Abaraga (Plate 4.26): some dozens of dry-stone constructions of circular plan, generally isolated. Wheel- turned Aswani pottery dating to AD 700-850 (W. Y. Adams, pers. comm.). No circular rotating millstones. Trench-type mining excavations, almost completely silted up.
Plate 4.29. Site C9 (confluence of Wadi Naba and Wadi el-Ku). B7, Idarib: covering an area of 2-3km’, a large settlement consisting of dry-stone structures of circular plan, isolated or aggregated (Plate 4.30). Many circular rotating millstones, whole and broken, and several cubic strikers. Outline of a small mosque and small Islamic cemeteries. Medieval Islamic ceramic. Trench-type mining excavations, almost completely silted up.
Plate 4.29. Site C9 (confluence of Wadi Naba and Wadi el-Ku). B7, Idarib: covering an area of 2-3km’, a large settlement consisting of dry-stone structures of circular plan, isolated or aggregated (Plate 4.30). Many circular rotating millstones, whole and broken, and several cubic strikers. Outline of a small mosque and small Islamic cemeteries. Medieval Islamic ceramic. Trench-type mining excavations, almost completely silted up.
Plate 4.30. Idarib, site B7. BCU, are connrmed by archaeological discoveries, the exact process of melting the auriferous dust to transform it into bars must be considered carefully. Agatharchides wrote: “The ‘washer’ deliveries the quartz dust to the ‘melters’ who put it into a ceramic vessel and, in proportion to the quantity received, add a piece of lead, a pinch of salt, and even a little alloy of silver and lead and barley bran. The mouth of the container is hermetically sealed with clay. The melters then let the container heat for five consecutive days and nights. (After this period) the next day, when the heated content has cooled, they pour it in another container: they no longer find the added products, but a mass of molten gold weigh- ing slightly less than the weight of the starting material”. As may be noted, the melting has magical connotations with the addition of substances that certainly do not affect the result of the operation. Our search to find the furnaces where the auriferous dust was “heated for five consecutive days and nights” was fruitless, even though the melting was probably done at the mines. The Arab historian al-Yakoubi wrote in the late 10 century referring to the Allaqi mines, “Here the gold nuggets are transformed into bars” (obviously by melting the ore). However, in January 1989, in a khor that flowed into the Wadi Elei, which we were exploring, we found a small furnace that might represent a first, limited example. The structure was a low tunnel with a wider inlet facing the prevailing wind and a narrower outlet on the opposite side. It was located on a hill where the wind blows constantly during certain hours of the day. One can assume that the melters would have made a funnel using mats and branches to direct the wind into the rear opening of the small tunnel. This created the so-called “Venturi effect”, which could raise the temperature of the fuel up to 1063° C, indispensable for melting the gold. These are only suppositions: more research will be needed to solve the problem definitively. During the 1994 expedition, in a tributary of the Wadi Nesari, about 20km as the crow flies from Berenice Panchrysos and not far from another hieroglyphic inscription (Plate 4.31), we found what looked ike another furnace (Plate 4.32), also located on top of a hill, with the reat opening facing south to take advantage of the winds blowing constantly from the south from April to June, but other interpretations are possible (for example, it could be a ‘tunnel-grave’, a type of structure well known from the Fourth Cataract area).
Plate 4.30. Idarib, site B7. BCU, are connrmed by archaeological discoveries, the exact process of melting the auriferous dust to transform it into bars must be considered carefully. Agatharchides wrote: “The ‘washer’ deliveries the quartz dust to the ‘melters’ who put it into a ceramic vessel and, in proportion to the quantity received, add a piece of lead, a pinch of salt, and even a little alloy of silver and lead and barley bran. The mouth of the container is hermetically sealed with clay. The melters then let the container heat for five consecutive days and nights. (After this period) the next day, when the heated content has cooled, they pour it in another container: they no longer find the added products, but a mass of molten gold weigh- ing slightly less than the weight of the starting material”. As may be noted, the melting has magical connotations with the addition of substances that certainly do not affect the result of the operation. Our search to find the furnaces where the auriferous dust was “heated for five consecutive days and nights” was fruitless, even though the melting was probably done at the mines. The Arab historian al-Yakoubi wrote in the late 10 century referring to the Allaqi mines, “Here the gold nuggets are transformed into bars” (obviously by melting the ore). However, in January 1989, in a khor that flowed into the Wadi Elei, which we were exploring, we found a small furnace that might represent a first, limited example. The structure was a low tunnel with a wider inlet facing the prevailing wind and a narrower outlet on the opposite side. It was located on a hill where the wind blows constantly during certain hours of the day. One can assume that the melters would have made a funnel using mats and branches to direct the wind into the rear opening of the small tunnel. This created the so-called “Venturi effect”, which could raise the temperature of the fuel up to 1063° C, indispensable for melting the gold. These are only suppositions: more research will be needed to solve the problem definitively. During the 1994 expedition, in a tributary of the Wadi Nesari, about 20km as the crow flies from Berenice Panchrysos and not far from another hieroglyphic inscription (Plate 4.31), we found what looked ike another furnace (Plate 4.32), also located on top of a hill, with the reat opening facing south to take advantage of the winds blowing constantly from the south from April to June, but other interpretations are possible (for example, it could be a ‘tunnel-grave’, a type of structure well known from the Fourth Cataract area).
Plate 4.32. Wadi Nesari, probable furnace with mouth facing south. Plate 4.31. Wadi Nesari, hieroglyphic inscription.
Plate 4.32. Wadi Nesari, probable furnace with mouth facing south. Plate 4.31. Wadi Nesari, hieroglyphic inscription.
Plate 4.33. Fort Murrat. To the left of and below the graffito, we tead the name of “Herunefer”, priest of Horus, repeated several times. The hard stone allowed only a superficial incision, obtained by
Plate 4.33. Fort Murrat. To the left of and below the graffito, we tead the name of “Herunefer”, priest of Horus, repeated several times. The hard stone allowed only a superficial incision, obtained by
Plate 4.34. Fort Murrat, tower of a probable guard post. Plate 4.35. Wadi Murrat, hieroglyphic inscription near a probable well.
Plate 4.34. Fort Murrat, tower of a probable guard post. Plate 4.35. Wadi Murrat, hieroglyphic inscription near a probable well.
fixed on the end of the cave where, with incredible clarity, a hieroglyphic inscription over a metre and a half long stands out (Plate 4.37). We sit on the soft and clean sand and look carefully at the graffito. The patina is ancient, dark yellow, and stands out sharply against the smooth ochre-orange sandstone wall. The engraving is perfect, the corners sharp, and the groove precise, perhaps executed by incising with a metal tip. The writing is ancient, dating to the New Kingdom. We immediately recognize the importance of the discovery: the inscription we are looking at does not carry the name of an otherwise unknown traveller but that of an important, well attested personage, a Nubian prince, “Chief of Miam Plate 4.37. Heqanefer inscription.
fixed on the end of the cave where, with incredible clarity, a hieroglyphic inscription over a metre and a half long stands out (Plate 4.37). We sit on the soft and clean sand and look carefully at the graffito. The patina is ancient, dark yellow, and stands out sharply against the smooth ochre-orange sandstone wall. The engraving is perfect, the corners sharp, and the groove precise, perhaps executed by incising with a metal tip. The writing is ancient, dating to the New Kingdom. We immediately recognize the importance of the discovery: the inscription we are looking at does not carry the name of an otherwise unknown traveller but that of an important, well attested personage, a Nubian prince, “Chief of Miam Plate 4.37. Heqanefer inscription.
A few mettes from the entrance of the cave, some near- intact amphorae, one four-handled, emerge from the sand (Plate 4.36). We pass by them without stopping, our eyes Plate 4.36. “Cave of Hegqanefer’, finds in front of the entrance.
A few mettes from the entrance of the cave, some near- intact amphorae, one four-handled, emerge from the sand (Plate 4.36). We pass by them without stopping, our eyes Plate 4.36. “Cave of Hegqanefer’, finds in front of the entrance.
The remains of the houses of the workers who built these “alamat” are still often visible as are the outlines of mosques. Where the first mountains rise over the plains and the direc- tion can be identified mote easily, the pyramid-like structures are replaced by simple piles of stones placed on the mountain top. The track ends in sight of Jebel Umm Nabari, confirm- ing that the route led to Umm Nabari and the gold-mining region (Plate 4.40). The “alamat” are about 4-5m high, made with a clever accumulation of stones without binding that have with- stood the wind and survived in good condition. Often they are made of heavy sandstone blocks transported from far away because there ate no quarries in the area. It should be noted, however, that there is no standard form of con- struction; any available material was used to build the a/ama. The distance between one “a/ama” and the other is a few kilometres except on flat and uniform ground, where they ate erected at a distance of few hundred metres to make Plate 4.40. Satellite image with the track. towards Wawat indicated by the alamat.
The remains of the houses of the workers who built these “alamat” are still often visible as are the outlines of mosques. Where the first mountains rise over the plains and the direc- tion can be identified mote easily, the pyramid-like structures are replaced by simple piles of stones placed on the mountain top. The track ends in sight of Jebel Umm Nabari, confirm- ing that the route led to Umm Nabari and the gold-mining region (Plate 4.40). The “alamat” are about 4-5m high, made with a clever accumulation of stones without binding that have with- stood the wind and survived in good condition. Often they are made of heavy sandstone blocks transported from far away because there ate no quarries in the area. It should be noted, however, that there is no standard form of con- struction; any available material was used to build the a/ama. The distance between one “a/ama” and the other is a few kilometres except on flat and uniform ground, where they ate erected at a distance of few hundred metres to make Plate 4.40. Satellite image with the track. towards Wawat indicated by the alamat.
Plate 4.38. Along the track towards Wawat, alama positioned in the direction of Jebel Umm Nabari.
Plate 4.38. Along the track towards Wawat, alama positioned in the direction of Jebel Umm Nabari.
them clearly visible when the terrain is obscured by wind- blown sand. Their form and style seem to be attributable to the medieval Arabic period, testified to also by Arabic writing incised at the base of some of them (Plate 4.39) Plate 4.39. Along the track towards Wawat, Arabic writing.
them clearly visible when the terrain is obscured by wind- blown sand. Their form and style seem to be attributable to the medieval Arabic period, testified to also by Arabic writing incised at the base of some of them (Plate 4.39) Plate 4.39. Along the track towards Wawat, Arabic writing.
According to Egyptian sources, Wawat was the main source of gold during the Pharaonic period. But we must not for- get another region that supplied the precious metal, that of ‘Amu’, mentioned in a list, inscribed in Luxor temple, of the mines of the period of Ramesses IT (1279-1213 BC). The Egyptians classified the main places of interest identifying them by different names, places, however, that are often dif- ficult to identify with accuracy. The toponym also appears to occur in an Eighteenth Dynasty rock-inscription of a scribe called “‘Userhat of Am(u)’ at the site of Sabu, near the Nile in Nubia, just downstream of the Third Cataract, which we visited between November 2007 and January 2008 (Plate 4.41). Plate 4.41. Hieroglyphic inscription at Sabu downstream of the Third Cataract.
According to Egyptian sources, Wawat was the main source of gold during the Pharaonic period. But we must not for- get another region that supplied the precious metal, that of ‘Amu’, mentioned in a list, inscribed in Luxor temple, of the mines of the period of Ramesses IT (1279-1213 BC). The Egyptians classified the main places of interest identifying them by different names, places, however, that are often dif- ficult to identify with accuracy. The toponym also appears to occur in an Eighteenth Dynasty rock-inscription of a scribe called “‘Userhat of Am(u)’ at the site of Sabu, near the Nile in Nubia, just downstream of the Third Cataract, which we visited between November 2007 and January 2008 (Plate 4.41). Plate 4.41. Hieroglyphic inscription at Sabu downstream of the Third Cataract.
About halfway, the route crosses sandy areas where progress is not always easy. There is an increasing number of “alamat’’. Placed on the hilltops, they allow one to keep the direction in After a careful study of the satellite photos and the course of the wadis that penetrate into the desert, we believe it possible that the land of Amu is located in the mountain chain of Abu Siha, 250-300km from the Nile: a succes- sion of mountains oriented east to west, rich in auriferous quartz, a location that could be reached by caravan in 10 to 12 days. In this case, we suggest that the gold of Wawat and Amu might have been obtained respectively from two clearly distinct auriferous areas, separated by about 50km of desert (Plate 4.42). Plate 4.43. Itinerary of the expedition from the Nile to Abu Siha following the easiest way along the wadis
About halfway, the route crosses sandy areas where progress is not always easy. There is an increasing number of “alamat’’. Placed on the hilltops, they allow one to keep the direction in After a careful study of the satellite photos and the course of the wadis that penetrate into the desert, we believe it possible that the land of Amu is located in the mountain chain of Abu Siha, 250-300km from the Nile: a succes- sion of mountains oriented east to west, rich in auriferous quartz, a location that could be reached by caravan in 10 to 12 days. In this case, we suggest that the gold of Wawat and Amu might have been obtained respectively from two clearly distinct auriferous areas, separated by about 50km of desert (Plate 4.42). Plate 4.43. Itinerary of the expedition from the Nile to Abu Siha following the easiest way along the wadis
Plate 4.42. Satellite photograph of the mining areas of Wawat and Amu.
Plate 4.42. Satellite photograph of the mining areas of Wawat and Amu.
There are numerous millstones, probably dating to the Pharaonic period (Plate 4.44), but no rotating mills, which were probably introduced into Nubia during the Ptolemaic period and also used in the Islamic period. The sole presence of grinding mills suggests that these mines were exploited mainly in Egyptian times and then abandoned in the early Islamic period, perhaps due to the exhaustion of the aurifer- ous quartz. Some dwellings are located along the banks of a now dry wadi. Plate 4.44. Rubbing millstones in the mine of Umm Fut-Fit, probably of the Pharaonic period.
There are numerous millstones, probably dating to the Pharaonic period (Plate 4.44), but no rotating mills, which were probably introduced into Nubia during the Ptolemaic period and also used in the Islamic period. The sole presence of grinding mills suggests that these mines were exploited mainly in Egyptian times and then abandoned in the early Islamic period, perhaps due to the exhaustion of the aurifer- ous quartz. Some dwellings are located along the banks of a now dry wadi. Plate 4.44. Rubbing millstones in the mine of Umm Fut-Fit, probably of the Pharaonic period.
Plate 4.45. Umm Fit-Fit mine, masonry technique that distinguishes one of the build- ings, likely deposit for the auriferous powder. Plate 4.46. Terrain dug up to search for alluvial gold about 20km east of Umm Fit-Fit.
Plate 4.45. Umm Fit-Fit mine, masonry technique that distinguishes one of the build- ings, likely deposit for the auriferous powder. Plate 4.46. Terrain dug up to search for alluvial gold about 20km east of Umm Fit-Fit.
Plate 4.47. Abu Siha mine.
Plate 4.47. Abu Siha mine.
There are numerous millstones here (Plate 4.50). They are evidence of a centuries-long mining exploitation, confirmed by pottery fragments of the Pharaonic era and medieval Is- lamic period. After more than a month we return to the Nile hoping to have found the land of Amu. Plate 4.50. Omar Khabash mine, numerous millstones.
There are numerous millstones here (Plate 4.50). They are evidence of a centuries-long mining exploitation, confirmed by pottery fragments of the Pharaonic era and medieval Is- lamic period. After more than a month we return to the Nile hoping to have found the land of Amu. Plate 4.50. Omar Khabash mine, numerous millstones.
Plate 4.48. Nasib el-Husan mine.
Plate 4.48. Nasib el-Husan mine.
Plate 4.49. Omar Khabash mine.
Plate 4.49. Omar Khabash mine.
Millstones, often accompanied by their crusher (Plate 4.51), are clear evidence that grains, wild or cultivated, grew in this area thousands of years ago. The petrified remains of trees date back even further in time, perhaps millions of years. From Kerma, we cover about 250km (a ten-day caravan’s march) without finding a well, a problem that Harkhuf would also have had to face. We travel another 100km before reaching Bir Hatab in the homonymous wadi, the only well in the area. It is very old, built with masterly interlocking dry-stone walling (Plate 4.52). Perhaps the caravan of Harkhuf stopped right here to replenish its water supply before resuming the journey. Plate 4.52. Wadi Bir Hatab, well.
Millstones, often accompanied by their crusher (Plate 4.51), are clear evidence that grains, wild or cultivated, grew in this area thousands of years ago. The petrified remains of trees date back even further in time, perhaps millions of years. From Kerma, we cover about 250km (a ten-day caravan’s march) without finding a well, a problem that Harkhuf would also have had to face. We travel another 100km before reaching Bir Hatab in the homonymous wadi, the only well in the area. It is very old, built with masterly interlocking dry-stone walling (Plate 4.52). Perhaps the caravan of Harkhuf stopped right here to replenish its water supply before resuming the journey. Plate 4.52. Wadi Bir Hatab, well.
In early October 1996, following what we believe might have been Harkhuf’s route, we head east-northeast across the Atmur desert, an immense plain without natural reference points. Numerous remains of mummified animals that had died from thirst and heat lie scattered along the way. This region, now so sterile, once hosted prehistoric communities. Plate 4.51. Desert of Atmur.
In early October 1996, following what we believe might have been Harkhuf’s route, we head east-northeast across the Atmur desert, an immense plain without natural reference points. Numerous remains of mummified animals that had died from thirst and heat lie scattered along the way. This region, now so sterile, once hosted prehistoric communities. Plate 4.51. Desert of Atmur.
Supportive evidence is provided by the presence in the
Supportive evidence is provided by the presence in the
Plate 4.54. Hieroglyphic inscription, Bir Ungat.
Plate 4.54. Hieroglyphic inscription, Bir Ungat.
The hard work, together with the difficulties posed by the long journey to reach the mine, caused numerous deaths, marked by the Islamic burials of the Upper Allaqi. Fourteen isolated tombs have been documented in this area, some on Plate 4.55. Islamic medieval ceramics, Upper Wadi Allaqi.
The hard work, together with the difficulties posed by the long journey to reach the mine, caused numerous deaths, marked by the Islamic burials of the Upper Allaqi. Fourteen isolated tombs have been documented in this area, some on Plate 4.55. Islamic medieval ceramics, Upper Wadi Allaqi.
the hills, others, in greater numbers, along the course of the Allaqi and at the side of the tracks that led to the mining areas. Next to some mounds, we found offerings to the dead in the form of steatite jugs or earthenware containers (Plate 4.56).
the hills, others, in greater numbers, along the course of the Allaqi and at the side of the tracks that led to the mining areas. Next to some mounds, we found offerings to the dead in the form of steatite jugs or earthenware containers (Plate 4.56).
Along the Wadi Allaqi, there are numerous graffiti depicting camels, probably left dangerous journey. by pilgrims as mementos of the long and They stand out clear and distinct against the blackish patina of the rock. Some confirm what was writ- ten by the Arab traveller Ibn Jubayr about desert travel: “... the only way to trave in these deserts is by camels, given their resistance to thirst. The best way to travel, used by wealthy people, is in a sagadif, a sort of sedan chair ... because these .. ate coveted with eather and comfortable.” Some graffiti show this way of travelling: one can see two paired camels supporting the sedan chair (Plate 4.57). The poor, however, travelled quite differently. Ibn Jubayr continues: “... They sit atop the loads, suffering discomfort from the burning wind that pains and torments them ...”. Plate 4.57. Upper Wadi Allaqi, graffiti with depiction of camels.
Along the Wadi Allaqi, there are numerous graffiti depicting camels, probably left dangerous journey. by pilgrims as mementos of the long and They stand out clear and distinct against the blackish patina of the rock. Some confirm what was writ- ten by the Arab traveller Ibn Jubayr about desert travel: “... the only way to trave in these deserts is by camels, given their resistance to thirst. The best way to travel, used by wealthy people, is in a sagadif, a sort of sedan chair ... because these .. ate coveted with eather and comfortable.” Some graffiti show this way of travelling: one can see two paired camels supporting the sedan chair (Plate 4.57). The poor, however, travelled quite differently. Ibn Jubayr continues: “... They sit atop the loads, suffering discomfort from the burning wind that pains and torments them ...”. Plate 4.57. Upper Wadi Allaqi, graffiti with depiction of camels.
Plate 4.59. Graffito depicting Beja warriors facing cavalry.
Plate 4.59. Graffito depicting Beja warriors facing cavalry.
Is it the ghost town of the Arab legend? We observe the astonishing view that the sunset light renders even more magical, similar to the shimmering images of a mirage. The dimmed brightness and suffused glimmers of the twilight Plate 4.63. Beja transiting in front of the fort of Berenice Panchrysos which in their language they call Deraheib, i.e. “buildings”.
Is it the ghost town of the Arab legend? We observe the astonishing view that the sunset light renders even more magical, similar to the shimmering images of a mirage. The dimmed brightness and suffused glimmers of the twilight Plate 4.63. Beja transiting in front of the fort of Berenice Panchrysos which in their language they call Deraheib, i.e. “buildings”.
Plate 4.61. Remains of a possible guard tower in the middle of Wadi Allaqi, near Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.61. Remains of a possible guard tower in the middle of Wadi Allaqi, near Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.62. Remains of the probable foundation of a wall crossing the Wadi Allaqi near Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.62. Remains of the probable foundation of a wall crossing the Wadi Allaqi near Berenice Panchrysos.
The town comprises a vast residential settlement located on the east side and scattered buildings along both sides of the Allagi for about 1.5km. The buildings are separated by a main axial road, 6m wide in some places (Plate 4.65), and Plate 4.65. Main axial road of Berenice Panchrysos.
The town comprises a vast residential settlement located on the east side and scattered buildings along both sides of the Allagi for about 1.5km. The buildings are separated by a main axial road, 6m wide in some places (Plate 4.65), and Plate 4.65. Main axial road of Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.64. The tivo imposing forts of Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.64. The tivo imposing forts of Berenice Panchrysos.
often surmounted by arches that seem to defy the laws of gravity (Plate 4.66). At the large loop formed by the wadi, which runs from the east and then turns to the north, there are two imposing forts. The complexity of the town obliges us to make a choice: we decide to focus on the two castles. Plate 4.66. Rounded arches at the entrance of Berenice Panchrysos.
often surmounted by arches that seem to defy the laws of gravity (Plate 4.66). At the large loop formed by the wadi, which runs from the east and then turns to the north, there are two imposing forts. The complexity of the town obliges us to make a choice: we decide to focus on the two castles. Plate 4.66. Rounded arches at the entrance of Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.67. Berenice Panchrysos, main fort.
Plate 4.67. Berenice Panchrysos, main fort.
Plate 4.68. Berenice Panchrysos, main fort. The figure in the foreground highlights the monumentality of the structure.
Plate 4.68. Berenice Panchrysos, main fort. The figure in the foreground highlights the monumentality of the structure.
Plate 4.69. North-west wall of the main fort, preserved to a considerable height on several floors. We icave the Castie and dUmM further south reach the second fort. It is a classic example of a Greco-Roman praesidium (Plate 4.72). Two towers, one of which is largely intact, rise at the end of the massive wall through which the entrance opens. Walking through the walls, a staircase of bare stones gives access to a rampart walk, ori- ented south east. The rooms, built against the walls, surround a large courtyard, in the centre of which there perhaps stood a well, now long gone. Almost in the centre of the town there is a large rectangu- lar enclosure of about 30 x 15m. There are some arched windows in the east wall (Plate 4.73). They are almost certainly the remains of an ancient mosque. At the north-east
Plate 4.69. North-west wall of the main fort, preserved to a considerable height on several floors. We icave the Castie and dUmM further south reach the second fort. It is a classic example of a Greco-Roman praesidium (Plate 4.72). Two towers, one of which is largely intact, rise at the end of the massive wall through which the entrance opens. Walking through the walls, a staircase of bare stones gives access to a rampart walk, ori- ented south east. The rooms, built against the walls, surround a large courtyard, in the centre of which there perhaps stood a well, now long gone. Almost in the centre of the town there is a large rectangu- lar enclosure of about 30 x 15m. There are some arched windows in the east wall (Plate 4.73). They are almost certainly the remains of an ancient mosque. At the north-east
Plate 4.70. Berenice Panchrysos, interior of the fort.
Plate 4.70. Berenice Panchrysos, interior of the fort.
Plate 4.71. Exterior of the main fort, remains of defensive structures probably related to an earlier period.
Plate 4.71. Exterior of the main fort, remains of defensive structures probably related to an earlier period.
Archaeological excavations carried out over the following years enabled us to propose that these ruins of Wadi Allaqi are those of Berenice Panchrysos. The identification was endorsed by a special commission that met in Milan in 1990, Plate 4.72. Berenice Panchrysos, second fort.
Archaeological excavations carried out over the following years enabled us to propose that these ruins of Wadi Allaqi are those of Berenice Panchrysos. The identification was endorsed by a special commission that met in Milan in 1990, Plate 4.72. Berenice Panchrysos, second fort.
Plate 4.73. Remains of a probable mosque at the centre of Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.73. Remains of a probable mosque at the centre of Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.74. Berenice Panchrysos, the two forts photographed from the balloon.
Plate 4.74. Berenice Panchrysos, the two forts photographed from the balloon.
Plate 4.75. Berenice Panchrysos, main urban nucleus, organized at the sides of the road axis (photograph by balloon).
Plate 4.75. Berenice Panchrysos, main urban nucleus, organized at the sides of the road axis (photograph by balloon).
Plate 4.76. Tetradrachm of Ptolemy I Soter found at Berenice Panchrysos. Plate 4.77. Mining excavations in the mountains surrounding Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.76. Tetradrachm of Ptolemy I Soter found at Berenice Panchrysos. Plate 4.77. Mining excavations in the mountains surrounding Berenice Panchrysos.
Plate 4.78. Milan, 1990. Scientific meeting with the international academic committee that endorsed the identification as Berenice Panchrysos of the site found by the Castighoni Expedi- tion (from left to right: Isabella Caneva, Charles Bonnet, Jean Vercoutter, Sergio Donadoni, Anna-Maria Roveri Donadom, Alfredo Castighoni, Giancarlo Negro and Angelo Castiglioni).
Plate 4.78. Milan, 1990. Scientific meeting with the international academic committee that endorsed the identification as Berenice Panchrysos of the site found by the Castighoni Expedi- tion (from left to right: Isabella Caneva, Charles Bonnet, Jean Vercoutter, Sergio Donadoni, Anna-Maria Roveri Donadom, Alfredo Castighoni, Giancarlo Negro and Angelo Castiglioni).
After having left Lake Nubia/Nasser, the expedition skirts a low band of sandstone hills running south-southeast. Nu- merous ceramic fragments abandoned by recent and ancient caravans lie on the ground along the first few kilometres of the route; they could be campsite remains, confirming that out expedition was following ancient tracks (see, for example, site AE (Plate 5.1). At the foot of a hill, about 3km south east Plate 5.1. Atmur Desert, ceramic fragments documented in site AE. of Jebel Enat, we discover substantial traces of occupation (mills, pestles, ceramic fragments) in an area of about 150- 250m’. We document mills of different sizes, made of quartz and granite, evidence of ancient farming activity (site RD 18).
After having left Lake Nubia/Nasser, the expedition skirts a low band of sandstone hills running south-southeast. Nu- merous ceramic fragments abandoned by recent and ancient caravans lie on the ground along the first few kilometres of the route; they could be campsite remains, confirming that out expedition was following ancient tracks (see, for example, site AE (Plate 5.1). At the foot of a hill, about 3km south east Plate 5.1. Atmur Desert, ceramic fragments documented in site AE. of Jebel Enat, we discover substantial traces of occupation (mills, pestles, ceramic fragments) in an area of about 150- 250m’. We document mills of different sizes, made of quartz and granite, evidence of ancient farming activity (site RD 18).
diameter (site AG). We photograph the ceramic fragments discovered. After 10km, we see numerous cupels carved into boulders in horizontal or vertical positions. They are almost all the same size and positioned at different distances from each another. Their function has not yet been clarified (Plate 5.3). About 150m to the north, half hidden by stones, lies
diameter (site AG). We photograph the ceramic fragments discovered. After 10km, we see numerous cupels carved into boulders in horizontal or vertical positions. They are almost all the same size and positioned at different distances from each another. Their function has not yet been clarified (Plate 5.3). About 150m to the north, half hidden by stones, lies
an intact amphora with two handles, which we are able to recover intact (Plate 5.4) (see further Ruffieux and Mahmoud Bashir, this volume, 168-9, Plate 13.31). We photograph the ceramic fragments collected (site AI). At about 6km from this site (direction 32°), at the base of a jebel, we find numerous prehistoric settlements, as evidenced by several mills. One of these, recovered in a shelter against a wall and, therefore, protected from the weather, has traces of a white powder that
an intact amphora with two handles, which we are able to recover intact (Plate 5.4) (see further Ruffieux and Mahmoud Bashir, this volume, 168-9, Plate 13.31). We photograph the ceramic fragments collected (site AI). At about 6km from this site (direction 32°), at the base of a jebel, we find numerous prehistoric settlements, as evidenced by several mills. One of these, recovered in a shelter against a wall and, therefore, protected from the weather, has traces of a white powder that
Plate 5.6. Hieroglyphic inscription, site RD 20.
Plate 5.6. Hieroglyphic inscription, site RD 20.
Plate 5.7. Satellite photo with location of sites mentioned in the text.
Plate 5.7. Satellite photo with location of sites mentioned in the text.
Plate 5.9. Site RD2. Graffiti with a scene depicting a duel between Beja, identified by the round shield. Plate 5.8. Jebel Nahoganet, site RD1. Graffiti with depiction of long-horned spotted cattle.
Plate 5.9. Site RD2. Graffiti with a scene depicting a duel between Beja, identified by the round shield. Plate 5.8. Jebel Nahoganet, site RD1. Graffiti with depiction of long-horned spotted cattle.
Plate 5.11. Site RDS, graffiti with depiction of giraffes realised with pecking techmique.
Plate 5.11. Site RDS, graffiti with depiction of giraffes realised with pecking techmique.
Plate 5.10. Site S, lithic and ceramic fragments.
Plate 5.10. Site S, lithic and ceramic fragments.
Plate 5.12. Site RD6, rock-drawings with traces of red colour.
Plate 5.12. Site RD6, rock-drawings with traces of red colour.
Plate 5.13. Satellite photograph of the expedition itinerary; the most important sites are marked in blue, those of lesser interest in yellow. Plate 5.14. Site RDY, depiction of boats; belon, a hieroglyphic inscription.
Plate 5.13. Satellite photograph of the expedition itinerary; the most important sites are marked in blue, those of lesser interest in yellow. Plate 5.14. Site RDY, depiction of boats; belon, a hieroglyphic inscription.
Plate 5.15. Site RD11, rare representation in red: long-horned cattle.
Plate 5.15. Site RD11, rare representation in red: long-horned cattle.
Plate 5.16. Jebel Abu Merek, carvings depicting a herd of herbivores.
Plate 5.16. Jebel Abu Merek, carvings depicting a herd of herbivores.
Plate 5.19. Site RD15, graffiti outside the shelter. Plate 5.18. Site RD 14, probable scene of a feline attacking cattle being led to pasture.
Plate 5.19. Site RD15, graffiti outside the shelter. Plate 5.18. Site RD 14, probable scene of a feline attacking cattle being led to pasture.
Plate 5.20. Site RD17, next to the depiction of cattle and goats, antelope with long spiral horns — perhaps addax — are also depicted
Plate 5.20. Site RD17, next to the depiction of cattle and goats, antelope with long spiral horns — perhaps addax — are also depicted
Plate 5.21. Site RD16, graffiti partially submerged in the sand; one can see two schematized human figures, possibly herders armed with bows.
Plate 5.21. Site RD16, graffiti partially submerged in the sand; one can see two schematized human figures, possibly herders armed with bows.
The first site is located about 150km as the crow flies from Jebel Umm Nabari. The graffito shows a group of goats carved at about 3m from the bottom of the wadi (Plate 5.24), a situation very similar to that found in other areas. There are many animals in the representation and one of these in the Plate 5.23. Satellite photograph with the expedition itinerary, the most interesting sites marked in blue. Jebel Umm Nabari, with the Rafit peak rising to 780m above sea level, stands out a few kilometres to the east. Our expedition ends near this mountain range.
The first site is located about 150km as the crow flies from Jebel Umm Nabari. The graffito shows a group of goats carved at about 3m from the bottom of the wadi (Plate 5.24), a situation very similar to that found in other areas. There are many animals in the representation and one of these in the Plate 5.23. Satellite photograph with the expedition itinerary, the most interesting sites marked in blue. Jebel Umm Nabari, with the Rafit peak rising to 780m above sea level, stands out a few kilometres to the east. Our expedition ends near this mountain range.
Plate 5.22. Site RD24, carvings of goats on an elevated rock, perhaps a place of worship dedicated to these animals.
Plate 5.22. Site RD24, carvings of goats on an elevated rock, perhaps a place of worship dedicated to these animals.
Plate 5.24. Site RD25 (not marked on the satellite photo), probably a place of worship dedicated to goats. The depiction ts located about 10m from the bottom of a wadi.
Plate 5.24. Site RD25 (not marked on the satellite photo), probably a place of worship dedicated to goats. The depiction ts located about 10m from the bottom of a wadi.
Plate 5.25. Site RD27, probable drinking trough.
Plate 5.25. Site RD27, probable drinking trough.
Plate 6.1. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 03. Graffiti depicting a mace and a goat.
Plate 6.1. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 03. Graffiti depicting a mace and a goat.
Plate 6.2. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 04. Lithic finds.
Plate 6.2. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 04. Lithic finds.
Plate 6.3. Massif. of Jebel Daweig, site 07, deep incisions on sandstone wall depicting sandals with laces. Site 07: at the entrance of a small cave, sandals with evident strings are carved on the sandstone wall. Slightly further down, some cows are depicted on a vertical rock. The deeply executed incisions suggest that they were made in the same period (Plates 6.3 and 6.4).
Plate 6.3. Massif. of Jebel Daweig, site 07, deep incisions on sandstone wall depicting sandals with laces. Site 07: at the entrance of a small cave, sandals with evident strings are carved on the sandstone wall. Slightly further down, some cows are depicted on a vertical rock. The deeply executed incisions suggest that they were made in the same period (Plates 6.3 and 6.4).
Plate 6.4. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 07. Schematic representation of cattle next to the carving of sandals.
Plate 6.4. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 07. Schematic representation of cattle next to the carving of sandals.
Site 12: in a small wadi at the base of low hills, there are about ten prehistoric graves mostly covered with schist slabs cut out from the nearby mountains. The circular walls of the houses are also built with blocks of this rock. A mysterious structure, built partly with flakes and partly with blocks of schist, is located at the mouth of the wadi (Plate 6.5). From the hilltop, we can clearly see a circular structure about 12m in diameter, perhaps a tumulus (Plate 6.6). Plate 6.5. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 12, structure difficult to identify.
Site 12: in a small wadi at the base of low hills, there are about ten prehistoric graves mostly covered with schist slabs cut out from the nearby mountains. The circular walls of the houses are also built with blocks of this rock. A mysterious structure, built partly with flakes and partly with blocks of schist, is located at the mouth of the wadi (Plate 6.5). From the hilltop, we can clearly see a circular structure about 12m in diameter, perhaps a tumulus (Plate 6.6). Plate 6.5. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 12, structure difficult to identify.
Plate 6.6. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 12. Circular structure about 12m in diameter, perhaps with a funerary function.
Plate 6.6. Massif of Jebel Daweig, site 12. Circular structure about 12m in diameter, perhaps with a funerary function.
We reach Jebel el-Hatan Atshan (Plate 6.7). It rises isolated from the plain. A compact sandstone mass of about 36km/’, numerous prehistoric settlements are concentrated along its base. The jebel in fact offered favourable environmental conditions for human and animal life. It was surrounded to the north and east by Wadi el-Hatab, now dry, but which once flowed with sufficient water to allow lush plant growth. Of the abundant water in the past, only a well, the Bir Hatab south of Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, survives today, yet that, too, is slowly running dry. Site 18: 2km east from the previous site, at the beginning of a low hill chain running parallel to Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, we find a small prehist with dark stones t otic settlement. There are some fences built hat stand out against the yellow sand. In a lateral khor, a few hundred metres away, we see an inhumation burial similar to others we had already found in the desert. It consists of a num ber of mounds built over a circular struc- ture (in this case with a diameter of about 8-10m). There are no clear reasons for these overlaps, which show that recent burials are located over earlier graves (Plate 6.11). There is
We reach Jebel el-Hatan Atshan (Plate 6.7). It rises isolated from the plain. A compact sandstone mass of about 36km/’, numerous prehistoric settlements are concentrated along its base. The jebel in fact offered favourable environmental conditions for human and animal life. It was surrounded to the north and east by Wadi el-Hatab, now dry, but which once flowed with sufficient water to allow lush plant growth. Of the abundant water in the past, only a well, the Bir Hatab south of Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, survives today, yet that, too, is slowly running dry. Site 18: 2km east from the previous site, at the beginning of a low hill chain running parallel to Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, we find a small prehist with dark stones t otic settlement. There are some fences built hat stand out against the yellow sand. In a lateral khor, a few hundred metres away, we see an inhumation burial similar to others we had already found in the desert. It consists of a num ber of mounds built over a circular struc- ture (in this case with a diameter of about 8-10m). There are no clear reasons for these overlaps, which show that recent burials are located over earlier graves (Plate 6.11). There is
Plate 6.7. Satellite photograph of Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, with a large concentration of prehistoric sites at its base.
Plate 6.7. Satellite photograph of Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, with a large concentration of prehistoric sites at its base.
Plate 6.9. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, Site 15. Structures presumably of prebistoric times.
Plate 6.9. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, Site 15. Structures presumably of prebistoric times.
Plate 6.12. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, site 20. Probable housing units. Plate 6.13. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, site 22. Circular mound about 30m in diameter and 3.5m high positioned at the centre of a reservorr.
Plate 6.12. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, site 20. Probable housing units. Plate 6.13. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, site 22. Circular mound about 30m in diameter and 3.5m high positioned at the centre of a reservorr.
Site 22: an imposing circular earthwork (Plate 6.13) is located on the western side of a dried lake that stretched from north to south for a length of about 10km and from west to east for approximately 2-3km. It was a lake formed by the Wadi Gabgaba, an important Nile tributary; its ancient course, almost completely submerged by sand, is still visible today. This was once a particularly fertile area, crossed by another river, the Hismat Omar, now also waterless. What reason drove prehistoric men to build such an extensive and massive con-
Site 22: an imposing circular earthwork (Plate 6.13) is located on the western side of a dried lake that stretched from north to south for a length of about 10km and from west to east for approximately 2-3km. It was a lake formed by the Wadi Gabgaba, an important Nile tributary; its ancient course, almost completely submerged by sand, is still visible today. This was once a particularly fertile area, crossed by another river, the Hismat Omar, now also waterless. What reason drove prehistoric men to build such an extensive and massive con-
Site 27: on the hills to the east of the lake, we find a large settlement of about 20 units. The dwellings are located on a one can see the bed of the dried lake: communities lived along its shores whose inhabitants ate, among other things, freshwater mussels. In fact, we find a considerable amount of shells among the dwellings. Fragments of ostrich eggs are also scattered over a large area. Eggs and shellfish were Plate 6.14. The white bottom of the lake, today dried up, stands out on the satellite photograph.
Site 27: on the hills to the east of the lake, we find a large settlement of about 20 units. The dwellings are located on a one can see the bed of the dried lake: communities lived along its shores whose inhabitants ate, among other things, freshwater mussels. In fact, we find a considerable amount of shells among the dwellings. Fragments of ostrich eggs are also scattered over a large area. Eggs and shellfish were Plate 6.14. The white bottom of the lake, today dried up, stands out on the satellite photograph.
Site 24: north of the lake and a few hundred metres from the shore, we find several prehistoric graves. We count about ten, some isolated, others grouped to form small cemeteries. Plate 6.15. Ceramics in situ near the necropolis, site 24.
Site 24: north of the lake and a few hundred metres from the shore, we find several prehistoric graves. We count about ten, some isolated, others grouped to form small cemeteries. Plate 6.15. Ceramics in situ near the necropolis, site 24.
Plate 6.16. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan. The necropolis of the extensive site 31.
Plate 6.16. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan. The necropolis of the extensive site 31.
Site 33: on low hills we find several shelters located on the left bank of the wadi where some acacias still survive, evidence of a once luxuriant region suitable for human and animal life. On a hill overlooking the settlement, we find a small cemetery. One of the six tombs has two standing stones, which sug- gest that the necropolis could be dated back to the medieval Islamic period (Plate 6.18). We find no pottery fragments or lithic material that might help to establish conclusively the period of frequentation of the site. We follow the dry bed of the river that heads towards the west and the mountains. Plate 6.17. Between sites 32 and 33, the satellite photograph shows the dry bed of a river, presumably flowing into the lake.
Site 33: on low hills we find several shelters located on the left bank of the wadi where some acacias still survive, evidence of a once luxuriant region suitable for human and animal life. On a hill overlooking the settlement, we find a small cemetery. One of the six tombs has two standing stones, which sug- gest that the necropolis could be dated back to the medieval Islamic period (Plate 6.18). We find no pottery fragments or lithic material that might help to establish conclusively the period of frequentation of the site. We follow the dry bed of the river that heads towards the west and the mountains. Plate 6.17. Between sites 32 and 33, the satellite photograph shows the dry bed of a river, presumably flowing into the lake.
Plate 6.18. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, site 33. Probable Islamic burials.
Plate 6.18. Jebel el-Hatan Atshan, site 33. Probable Islamic burials.
tion, with partition walls (Plate 7.2). Other buildings of the same type are located in the lateral wadis. Circular structures are rare. Despite being an extended mine, we do not find grindstones. The intensive mining, developed in the medieval Islamic period, must have resulted in the full exploitation of the quartz veins and the abandonment of the settlement. Extensive trench excavations on the sides of the mountains show there was intense activity at the site over a long period. Islamic tombs (Plate 7.3) surrounded by low stelae, scattered on the hills around the wadi, also testify to long use of the ejte bv the Arah miners. Plate 7.1. Wadi Nesari, site C40. Mining village for the exploitation of the auriferous quartz We follow the Wadi Nesari, taking the south-southeast di- rection, and after 5km, we reach the mine, site C40. Here there is a large rectangular building of dry-stone walls, with partition walls that separate the various rooms (Plate 7.1). The vast central space is strewn with numerous fragments of quartz,
tion, with partition walls (Plate 7.2). Other buildings of the same type are located in the lateral wadis. Circular structures are rare. Despite being an extended mine, we do not find grindstones. The intensive mining, developed in the medieval Islamic period, must have resulted in the full exploitation of the quartz veins and the abandonment of the settlement. Extensive trench excavations on the sides of the mountains show there was intense activity at the site over a long period. Islamic tombs (Plate 7.3) surrounded by low stelae, scattered on the hills around the wadi, also testify to long use of the ejte bv the Arah miners. Plate 7.1. Wadi Nesari, site C40. Mining village for the exploitation of the auriferous quartz We follow the Wadi Nesari, taking the south-southeast di- rection, and after 5km, we reach the mine, site C40. Here there is a large rectangular building of dry-stone walls, with partition walls that separate the various rooms (Plate 7.1). The vast central space is strewn with numerous fragments of quartz,
Plate 7.2. Wadi Nesari, mining settlement C39.
Plate 7.2. Wadi Nesari, mining settlement C39.
Plate 7.3. Wadi Nesari, Islamic graves on the hills surrounding the mining settlement C39.
Plate 7.3. Wadi Nesari, Islamic graves on the hills surrounding the mining settlement C39.
Plate 7.4. Wadi Nesari, mining settlement A11. Remarkably well preserved structures, some up to 2m in height.
Plate 7.4. Wadi Nesari, mining settlement A11. Remarkably well preserved structures, some up to 2m in height.
Plate 7.5. Wadi Nesari, mining settlement of Alaar (C37). Wall preserved in elevation with entrance door.
Plate 7.5. Wadi Nesari, mining settlement of Alaar (C37). Wall preserved in elevation with entrance door.
comm.) and small ceramic pieces, possibly Egyptian. The presence of some metal structures indicates more recent oc- cupation of the site, probably dating to the Ang o-Egyptian Condominium. Some blocks of stone bearing graffiti appear to have been removed from their original location, perhaps at the time of the re-opening of the mine. Toward s the south west, about 16km from Alaar, lies the site A12, marked by a large rectangular building of dry-stone construction. Inside, some walls delimit rooms and large central open s paces (Plate 7.7). On the surrounding hills, there are remains of circular
comm.) and small ceramic pieces, possibly Egyptian. The presence of some metal structures indicates more recent oc- cupation of the site, probably dating to the Ang o-Egyptian Condominium. Some blocks of stone bearing graffiti appear to have been removed from their original location, perhaps at the time of the re-opening of the mine. Toward s the south west, about 16km from Alaar, lies the site A12, marked by a large rectangular building of dry-stone construction. Inside, some walls delimit rooms and large central open s paces (Plate 7.7). On the surrounding hills, there are remains of circular
Plate 7.6. Site C37, the different colours of the millstones highlight the supply of materials of various origins.
Plate 7.6. Site C37, the different colours of the millstones highlight the supply of materials of various origins.
Continuing 250m to the east, we meet a second group of tombs, around which are Islamic inhumations. Between the two groups of platform mounds, we find a small Muslim cemetery, close to a circular construction of dry stone (Plate 7.9). This structure, equipped with a small window and a nar- row entrance door, is probably a place of worship, perhaps a mosque. Noticeable is a row of stones that seems to mark the mirab facing towards Mecca (Plate 7.10). There are numerous grinding mills and lithic anvils spread around and between the inhumations (Plate 7.11). Rotating millstones are completely lacking. All the circular platform mounds, probably belonging Plate 7.9. Islamic necropolis near site C35.
Continuing 250m to the east, we meet a second group of tombs, around which are Islamic inhumations. Between the two groups of platform mounds, we find a small Muslim cemetery, close to a circular construction of dry stone (Plate 7.9). This structure, equipped with a small window and a nar- row entrance door, is probably a place of worship, perhaps a mosque. Noticeable is a row of stones that seems to mark the mirab facing towards Mecca (Plate 7.10). There are numerous grinding mills and lithic anvils spread around and between the inhumations (Plate 7.11). Rotating millstones are completely lacking. All the circular platform mounds, probably belonging Plate 7.9. Islamic necropolis near site C35.
At the crater’s southern tip is site C35, where traces of different periods may coexist. The site is located at the inter- section of the Khor Haderat, which runs from west to east, with the Khor Mirdieb coming from the north. There are large circular platform mounds, probably of the pre-Islamic Beja period (average diameters: 17-20m; average heights: 1.25- 1.3m). At the foot of a low hill overlooking the cemetery are the remains of rectangular buildings (Plate 7.8), possibly once shelters for ancient miners (perhaps Egyptian); a number of grinding millstones are also present. Plate 7.8. Site C35, circular platform mounds of probable pre- Islamic Beja period and the remains of rectangular constructions.
At the crater’s southern tip is site C35, where traces of different periods may coexist. The site is located at the inter- section of the Khor Haderat, which runs from west to east, with the Khor Mirdieb coming from the north. There are large circular platform mounds, probably of the pre-Islamic Beja period (average diameters: 17-20m; average heights: 1.25- 1.3m). At the foot of a low hill overlooking the cemetery are the remains of rectangular buildings (Plate 7.8), possibly once shelters for ancient miners (perhaps Egyptian); a number of grinding millstones are also present. Plate 7.8. Site C35, circular platform mounds of probable pre- Islamic Beja period and the remains of rectangular constructions.
We head south east, following the Khor Haderat which penetrates between high hills. After 5km, we encounter a ghelfa (site A17), a natural basin of water where some curious insects live. Numerous circular platform tombs are scattered around. One and a half kilometres north from the ghe/fa is site C34, a large rectangular building, made of stones and clay (Plate 7.12). From here, to the south, the auriferous area of Jebel Plate 7.12. Site C34, large building made of stones and clay.
We head south east, following the Khor Haderat which penetrates between high hills. After 5km, we encounter a ghelfa (site A17), a natural basin of water where some curious insects live. Numerous circular platform tombs are scattered around. One and a half kilometres north from the ghe/fa is site C34, a large rectangular building, made of stones and clay (Plate 7.12). From here, to the south, the auriferous area of Jebel Plate 7.12. Site C34, large building made of stones and clay.
Plate 7.10. Islamic necropolis near site C35, probable mosque with delimitation of stones marking the mibrab.
Plate 7.10. Islamic necropolis near site C35, probable mosque with delimitation of stones marking the mibrab.
About 5km eastwards is site A16, marked by a number of citcular platform mounds built with an annex with an open- ing at their extreme end (Plate 7.14). The superstructures, in Plate 7.14. Site A16. Mound with entrance corridor.
About 5km eastwards is site A16, marked by a number of citcular platform mounds built with an annex with an open- ing at their extreme end (Plate 7.14). The superstructures, in Plate 7.14. Site A16. Mound with entrance corridor.
Onib opens up, the area so called because it is located around the mountain of this name. At site A14, a building, with a rectangular plan, constructed with dry schist slabs is near to collapse. At A15, the date “1907”, incised on the stone of a building, indicates recent interest in the site (Plate 7.13). Plate 7.13. Site. A15, the date marks a recent visit.
Onib opens up, the area so called because it is located around the mountain of this name. At site A14, a building, with a rectangular plan, constructed with dry schist slabs is near to collapse. At A15, the date “1907”, incised on the stone of a building, indicates recent interest in the site (Plate 7.13). Plate 7.13. Site. A15, the date marks a recent visit.
Plate 7.15. Site A16, millstone with two crushing areas.
Plate 7.15. Site A16, millstone with two crushing areas.
Plate 7.17. Satellite Image of el-Hofra (Onib crater).
Plate 7.17. Satellite Image of el-Hofra (Onib crater).
Plate 7.18. Interior of the crater, Beja pre-Islamic grave of monumental size.
Plate 7.18. Interior of the crater, Beja pre-Islamic grave of monumental size.
Plate 7.22. Disturbed grave inside the Onib crater. Plate 7.21. Summit of the quartz pyramid.
Plate 7.22. Disturbed grave inside the Onib crater. Plate 7.21. Summit of the quartz pyramid.
truncated-conical shape, the buildings have a diameter ranging from 2-5m and a height of between 1m and 2.5m, built with a tangle of branches that lets in a little light, but prevents the wind from carrying too much sand into the interior. They enclose a circular area always kept very clean, which is accessed through a door that is sometimes closed with mats or woven branches. The cover is finished with pieces of cortex, placed so as to prevent the sun’s rays from penetrating the interior. Hanging from the ceiling, the straw mats ate protected from the voracity of the goats. “They live in houses that look like tombs”, says our Arab guide. Indeed the inhumations of the pre-Islamic period are of conical truncated shape, very similar to the current Beja homes. Before leaving, we make a survey with a hang glider, to document from above a world fixed for centuries that is slowly disappearing. Our route through the region of the Onib crater is indicated in the satellite image (Plate 7.24). Plate 7.24. Satellite photograph with location of the sites mentioned.
truncated-conical shape, the buildings have a diameter ranging from 2-5m and a height of between 1m and 2.5m, built with a tangle of branches that lets in a little light, but prevents the wind from carrying too much sand into the interior. They enclose a circular area always kept very clean, which is accessed through a door that is sometimes closed with mats or woven branches. The cover is finished with pieces of cortex, placed so as to prevent the sun’s rays from penetrating the interior. Hanging from the ceiling, the straw mats ate protected from the voracity of the goats. “They live in houses that look like tombs”, says our Arab guide. Indeed the inhumations of the pre-Islamic period are of conical truncated shape, very similar to the current Beja homes. Before leaving, we make a survey with a hang glider, to document from above a world fixed for centuries that is slowly disappearing. Our route through the region of the Onib crater is indicated in the satellite image (Plate 7.24). Plate 7.24. Satellite photograph with location of the sites mentioned.
some scholars, similar to those used in ancient Egypt.” The walls of the huts are made with acacia trunks (Plate 7.23). Of
some scholars, similar to those used in ancient Egypt.” The walls of the huts are made with acacia trunks (Plate 7.23). Of
Figure 8.1. a) wall sherd of an open bowl with traces of cotling tech- nique from site RD8; b) rounded base of a vessel from site RD22; c) pointed base of a vessel from site AP; d) rim sherd of a bowl with wavy incised decorative pattern from site U2; e) rim sherd of a bowl with imepressed wavy decoration from site U9 (scale in cm).
Figure 8.1. a) wall sherd of an open bowl with traces of cotling tech- nique from site RD8; b) rounded base of a vessel from site RD22; c) pointed base of a vessel from site AP; d) rim sherd of a bowl with wavy incised decorative pattern from site U2; e) rim sherd of a bowl with imepressed wavy decoration from site U9 (scale in cm).
Figure 8.2. a-b) body sherds decorated with incised arches from sit U14, c-d) body sherds decorated with impressed arches from site U14; e) body sherd decorated with densely packed lines of bosses from site V (scale in cm).
Figure 8.2. a-b) body sherds decorated with incised arches from sit U14, c-d) body sherds decorated with impressed arches from site U14; e) body sherd decorated with densely packed lines of bosses from site V (scale in cm).
Figure 8.3. a) rim sherd of a bowl with a pivoting stamp technique decoration resulting in a herringbone pattern from site R65; b) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site R35; c) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with pivoting stamp technique resulting in a more spaced pattern of dots from site ED22; d) rim sherd of a Jar decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site U2; e) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site AQ (scale in cm).
Figure 8.3. a) rim sherd of a bowl with a pivoting stamp technique decoration resulting in a herringbone pattern from site R65; b) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site R35; c) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with pivoting stamp technique resulting in a more spaced pattern of dots from site ED22; d) rim sherd of a Jar decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site U2; e) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with a rim band and a packed pattern of dots obtained with pivoting stamp technique from site AQ (scale in cm).
Figure 8.4. a) fragment of a rippled ware black topped ware cup from site RD19; b) rim sherd of a closed cup with rim band of notches and herringbone incised pattern from site D3 (drawing by K. Sadr, see Sadr et al. 1993, fig. 4.3); c) fragment of the body of a vessel with rocker plain pattern from site AH, d) rim sherd of a closed bowl with thickened rim decorated with rocker plain pattern from site D5 (draw- ing by K. Sadr from CeRDO 1994) (scale in cm).
Figure 8.4. a) fragment of a rippled ware black topped ware cup from site RD19; b) rim sherd of a closed cup with rim band of notches and herringbone incised pattern from site D3 (drawing by K. Sadr, see Sadr et al. 1993, fig. 4.3); c) fragment of the body of a vessel with rocker plain pattern from site AH, d) rim sherd of a closed bowl with thickened rim decorated with rocker plain pattern from site D5 (draw- ing by K. Sadr from CeRDO 1994) (scale in cm).
Certainly related to the Atbai Ceramic Tradition of Eastern Sudan, and more precisely to the 4°-early 3" millennium BC Butana Group, are the bowls with wiped surfaces and notch- es on the lip from site R43 (Figure 5a and for comparisons Winchell 2013, 169-170, fig. A.18-19), the vessels decorated with patterns of spaced parallel shallow lines (Figure 5b; see Winchell 2013, 159-161, fig. A.10-12; Manzo 2017a, 22, fig. 15, c; Manzo ef a/, 2012, fig. 73, a) from the sites of the Wadi Tonaidba (U18), the scraped vessels sometimes characterised by regular notches on the lip (Figure 5c; see Manzo 2017a, 22, fig. 15, e; Manzo e¢ af 2012, 52, fig. 76; Winchell 2013, 169-170, fig. A.18-19) whose fragments were collected in sites of the Wadi Tonaidba (U18) and at site RD3, the cups with spaced rows of very regular light notches on the external surface from D5 village and from site RD3 (Figure 5d, and CeRDO 1994; for comparisons see Winchell 2013, 182, fig. A.31; Manzo 2017a, 22, fig. 15, d; Manzo ef af 2012, 52, fig. 75), and the vessels decorated with bands of parallel spaced comb impressed notches framed by incised lines always from sites in the Wadi Tonaidba (U18) (Figure 5e; for comparisons see Winchell 2013, 188, fig. A.35). Figure 8.5. a) rim sherd of a bowl with wiped surfaces and notches on the lip from site R43, b) rim sherd of ajar decorated with patterns of spaced parallel shallow lines from a site in the Wadi Tonaidba (U18), ¢) rim sherd of a scraped bowl with regular notches on the lip from site RD3; d) rim sherd of a cup with spaced rows of very regular light notches on the external surface from site RD3; ¢) body sherds of vessels decorated with bands of parallel Spaced comb impressed notches from a site in the Wadi Tonaidba (U18) (scale in cm).
Certainly related to the Atbai Ceramic Tradition of Eastern Sudan, and more precisely to the 4°-early 3" millennium BC Butana Group, are the bowls with wiped surfaces and notch- es on the lip from site R43 (Figure 5a and for comparisons Winchell 2013, 169-170, fig. A.18-19), the vessels decorated with patterns of spaced parallel shallow lines (Figure 5b; see Winchell 2013, 159-161, fig. A.10-12; Manzo 2017a, 22, fig. 15, c; Manzo ef a/, 2012, fig. 73, a) from the sites of the Wadi Tonaidba (U18), the scraped vessels sometimes characterised by regular notches on the lip (Figure 5c; see Manzo 2017a, 22, fig. 15, e; Manzo e¢ af 2012, 52, fig. 76; Winchell 2013, 169-170, fig. A.18-19) whose fragments were collected in sites of the Wadi Tonaidba (U18) and at site RD3, the cups with spaced rows of very regular light notches on the external surface from D5 village and from site RD3 (Figure 5d, and CeRDO 1994; for comparisons see Winchell 2013, 182, fig. A.31; Manzo 2017a, 22, fig. 15, d; Manzo ef af 2012, 52, fig. 75), and the vessels decorated with bands of parallel spaced comb impressed notches framed by incised lines always from sites in the Wadi Tonaidba (U18) (Figure 5e; for comparisons see Winchell 2013, 188, fig. A.35). Figure 8.5. a) rim sherd of a bowl with wiped surfaces and notches on the lip from site R43, b) rim sherd of ajar decorated with patterns of spaced parallel shallow lines from a site in the Wadi Tonaidba (U18), ¢) rim sherd of a scraped bowl with regular notches on the lip from site RD3; d) rim sherd of a cup with spaced rows of very regular light notches on the external surface from site RD3; ¢) body sherds of vessels decorated with bands of parallel Spaced comb impressed notches from a site in the Wadi Tonaidba (U18) (scale in cm).
Figure 8.6. Pierced ceramic disk usually associated with Clayton rings, from site 42 near Jebel Umm Nabari (scale in cm).
Figure 8.6. Pierced ceramic disk usually associated with Clayton rings, from site 42 near Jebel Umm Nabari (scale in cm).
Figure 8.7. a) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with horizontal incised lines on the body and small impressed notches on the top of the rim Jrom site U19 in the upper Wadi Elei; b) body sherd of a bowl with the body covered by incised lozenges or triangular sectors filled with parallel oblique incisions from site AL, ¢) rim sherd of a bowl with a band of incised crossing lines covering the upper part of the body from site R65; d) rim sherd of a black topped bowl with a slightly “S” profile, and with crossing bands of oblique lines covering the upper part of the vessel from site UD; e) wall sherd of a bowl with a band of oblique incisions framed by accurate horizontal bands of notches covering the upper part of the body from site R49; f) rim sherd of a bowl with a rim band of oblique crossing incisions forming triangles from site U16 (scale in cm).
Figure 8.7. a) rim sherd of a bowl decorated with horizontal incised lines on the body and small impressed notches on the top of the rim Jrom site U19 in the upper Wadi Elei; b) body sherd of a bowl with the body covered by incised lozenges or triangular sectors filled with parallel oblique incisions from site AL, ¢) rim sherd of a bowl with a band of incised crossing lines covering the upper part of the body from site R65; d) rim sherd of a black topped bowl with a slightly “S” profile, and with crossing bands of oblique lines covering the upper part of the vessel from site UD; e) wall sherd of a bowl with a band of oblique incisions framed by accurate horizontal bands of notches covering the upper part of the body from site R49; f) rim sherd of a bowl with a rim band of oblique crossing incisions forming triangles from site U16 (scale in cm).
Figure 8.8. a) rim sherd of a black topped cup with a red band inter- rupting the black one below the rim from site AH; b) rim sherd of a Jar with horizontal grooves covering the body and multiple rim bands The black-topped vessels characterised by silver or red/
Figure 8.8. a) rim sherd of a black topped cup with a red band inter- rupting the black one below the rim from site AH; b) rim sherd of a Jar with horizontal grooves covering the body and multiple rim bands The black-topped vessels characterised by silver or red/
In February-March 2004 the Centro Ricerche sul Deserto Orientale (Research Centre on the Eastern Desert), directed by Alfredo and Angelo Castiglioni, carried out a new ar- chaeological survey in the Sudanese Eastern Desert. The expedition started from Lake Nubia at Wadi Halfa, following an east-south-east direction to reach Jebel Umm Nabari and the gold-rich Wawat tegion.' During the survey, 67 sites were identified,’ very distant from one other, between latitudes 19° 23’ and 21° 44’ North and between longitudes 31° 36’ and 34° 59’ East (Figures 9.1 and 9.2). from any facilities. Therefore, the distribution map of the most numerous ceramic class, the late bag-shaped amphorae (Figure 9.25), is to be considered only as indicative of their presence, without quantitative interpretation. It seems anyway that, in general, the number of imported ceramics collected by CeRDO is not very different from the usual percentage of surface sherds dating to the Late Roman Period, between the 5*_7" centuries AD, attested in the Eastern Desert. Numbers of between 50-100 diagnostic fragments are considered nor- mal in the Egyptian section of the desert (Sidebotham ef a/. Figure 9.1. Satellite image of the study area (Landsat Copernicus, Google Earth 2017).
In February-March 2004 the Centro Ricerche sul Deserto Orientale (Research Centre on the Eastern Desert), directed by Alfredo and Angelo Castiglioni, carried out a new ar- chaeological survey in the Sudanese Eastern Desert. The expedition started from Lake Nubia at Wadi Halfa, following an east-south-east direction to reach Jebel Umm Nabari and the gold-rich Wawat tegion.' During the survey, 67 sites were identified,’ very distant from one other, between latitudes 19° 23’ and 21° 44’ North and between longitudes 31° 36’ and 34° 59’ East (Figures 9.1 and 9.2). from any facilities. Therefore, the distribution map of the most numerous ceramic class, the late bag-shaped amphorae (Figure 9.25), is to be considered only as indicative of their presence, without quantitative interpretation. It seems anyway that, in general, the number of imported ceramics collected by CeRDO is not very different from the usual percentage of surface sherds dating to the Late Roman Period, between the 5*_7" centuries AD, attested in the Eastern Desert. Numbers of between 50-100 diagnostic fragments are considered nor- mal in the Egyptian section of the desert (Sidebotham ef a/. Figure 9.1. Satellite image of the study area (Landsat Copernicus, Google Earth 2017).
Figure 9.2. GIS elaboration of the study area with the geolocalization of the sites recorded by the CeRDO expeditions, as well as all the sites, oases, wells, wadis and details from ancient geographical maps with information about the trajectory of caravan routes and the location of old towns. From these sources combined, it emerges that the caravan routes followed the course of the wadis to avoid the obstacles presented by mountains along the route and passed near wells and oases that enabled survival in the desert (Ciusani et al. 2017).
Figure 9.2. GIS elaboration of the study area with the geolocalization of the sites recorded by the CeRDO expeditions, as well as all the sites, oases, wells, wadis and details from ancient geographical maps with information about the trajectory of caravan routes and the location of old towns. From these sources combined, it emerges that the caravan routes followed the course of the wadis to avoid the obstacles presented by mountains along the route and passed near wells and oases that enabled survival in the desert (Ciusani et al. 2017).
TABLE 9.1. DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIFFERENT CERAMIC CLASSES OF THE CeRDO 2004 EXPEDITION. Figures 9.4 and 9.5. A synthesis of the graphic and photo- graphic information is provided in Figure 9.6. Desert in Late Antiquity, certainly needs to be expanded with petrographic and chemical analyses, which, until now, have involved mostly prehistoric materials (a.o. Garcea 2006; Klein et al. 2004; Dal Sasso ef a/. 2014).
TABLE 9.1. DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIFFERENT CERAMIC CLASSES OF THE CeRDO 2004 EXPEDITION. Figures 9.4 and 9.5. A synthesis of the graphic and photo- graphic information is provided in Figure 9.6. Desert in Late Antiquity, certainly needs to be expanded with petrographic and chemical analyses, which, until now, have involved mostly prehistoric materials (a.o. Garcea 2006; Klein et al. 2004; Dal Sasso ef a/. 2014).
Figure 9.3: Mine Site R39.
Figure 9.3: Mine Site R39.
Figure 9.4. Fresh fractures of samples 1-7, left macro, right digital microscope, 100x.?
Figure 9.4. Fresh fractures of samples 1-7, left macro, right digital microscope, 100x.?
Abundant small brown and grey inclusions of irregular shape and dimensions; sparser and small white Figure 9.7. Fabric 11, sample 11 — Site R57. Fabric 11 is attested by a fragment of neck with part of the handle, and by five wall sherds Their shape can be attributed to the middle Eastern Late Roman Amphora 1 type (Pieri 2005, 69-84). Observing the details of the fragment of neck with handle, large and thick, a closer typological parallel can be made with examples typical of the 6" century AD (Reynolds 2014). The wall fragments, on the basis of their cylindrical shape, seem closer to types LRA 1A transitional or LRA 1B (Pieri 2005, 71, fig. 25).’These details are important, as the production of LRA 1 covers a wide span of time, from the second half of the 4" until the 7" century AD, representing the most important and widespread commercial container of the Late Roman — early Byzantine period (Pieri 2005, 69).
Abundant small brown and grey inclusions of irregular shape and dimensions; sparser and small white Figure 9.7. Fabric 11, sample 11 — Site R57. Fabric 11 is attested by a fragment of neck with part of the handle, and by five wall sherds Their shape can be attributed to the middle Eastern Late Roman Amphora 1 type (Pieri 2005, 69-84). Observing the details of the fragment of neck with handle, large and thick, a closer typological parallel can be made with examples typical of the 6" century AD (Reynolds 2014). The wall fragments, on the basis of their cylindrical shape, seem closer to types LRA 1A transitional or LRA 1B (Pieri 2005, 71, fig. 25).’These details are important, as the production of LRA 1 covers a wide span of time, from the second half of the 4" until the 7" century AD, representing the most important and widespread commercial container of the Late Roman — early Byzantine period (Pieri 2005, 69).
The fragment of a base from Site R45 (Figure 9.8) can be attributed to the late 6% and 7 centuries on account of its small module, classified by Pieri as LRA 1B and characterised by a beige fabric (Pieri 2005, 71, fig. 25; Reynolds 2014). Figure 9.8. Late Roman Amphora 1. Fabric 1 Both wine and oil have been postulated as having formed the contents of LRA 1, and particularly for Egypt also grain, an assumption based on the interpretation of some inscrip- tions bearing the Egyptian unit of weight used for solid substances. In any event, the thorough examination of literary sources and archaeological evidence discussed by Pieri (2005, 81-85) demonstrates that wine was the main commodity trans- ported in these amphorae, while occasionally the containers could have been reused as storage vessels for different foods.
The fragment of a base from Site R45 (Figure 9.8) can be attributed to the late 6% and 7 centuries on account of its small module, classified by Pieri as LRA 1B and characterised by a beige fabric (Pieri 2005, 71, fig. 25; Reynolds 2014). Figure 9.8. Late Roman Amphora 1. Fabric 1 Both wine and oil have been postulated as having formed the contents of LRA 1, and particularly for Egypt also grain, an assumption based on the interpretation of some inscrip- tions bearing the Egyptian unit of weight used for solid substances. In any event, the thorough examination of literary sources and archaeological evidence discussed by Pieri (2005, 81-85) demonstrates that wine was the main commodity trans- ported in these amphorae, while occasionally the containers could have been reused as storage vessels for different foods.
Figure 9.9. Fabric 1, sample 01 — Site M3.
Figure 9.9. Fabric 1, sample 01 — Site M3.
Figure 9.10. Late bag-shaped amphorae. tirely preserved (Site M3, Figure 9.9) or missing, except for the initial portion adhering to the shoulder (Sites AE, RD5, Figure 9.10). The surfaces look well fired to a reddish yellow (SYR6/6) or pink in section (6YR7/49). Observed under the digital stereo microscope, the fresh fracture shows abundant, small inclusions of brown colour and irregular shape, more
Figure 9.10. Late bag-shaped amphorae. tirely preserved (Site M3, Figure 9.9) or missing, except for the initial portion adhering to the shoulder (Sites AE, RD5, Figure 9.10). The surfaces look well fired to a reddish yellow (SYR6/6) or pink in section (6YR7/49). Observed under the digital stereo microscope, the fresh fracture shows abundant, small inclusions of brown colour and irregular shape, more
Abundant irregular black inclusions; moderate white with angular shape. Figure 9.11. Fabric 6, sample 06 — Site M3. Fabric 14
Abundant irregular black inclusions; moderate white with angular shape. Figure 9.11. Fabric 6, sample 06 — Site M3. Fabric 14
Figure 9.12. Fabric 7, sample 07 — Site R62. Fabric 7 is probably related to the Late Roman bag-shaped
Figure 9.12. Fabric 7, sample 07 — Site R62. Fabric 7 is probably related to the Late Roman bag-shaped
Moderate small white inclusions; sparse round and elongated brown inclusions; occasionally large and sparse voids. Figure 9.13. Fabric 14, sample 14 — Site R68.
Moderate small white inclusions; sparse round and elongated brown inclusions; occasionally large and sparse voids. Figure 9.13. Fabric 14, sample 14 — Site R68.
Sparse brown rounded inclusions of different dimensions, generally small; some thin elongated voids. Figure 9.14. Fabric 16, sample 16 — Site R55.
Sparse brown rounded inclusions of different dimensions, generally small; some thin elongated voids. Figure 9.14. Fabric 16, sample 16 — Site R55.
Figure 9.16. Fabric 5, sample 05 — Site R37 (drawing scale 1:4). Sparse and irregular white inclusions; abundant voids of irregular shape, possibly of vegetal origin.
Figure 9.16. Fabric 5, sample 05 — Site R37 (drawing scale 1:4). Sparse and irregular white inclusions; abundant voids of irregular shape, possibly of vegetal origin.
Figure 9.15. Fabric 2, sample 02 — Site AE (drawing scale 1:4).
Figure 9.15. Fabric 2, sample 02 — Site AE (drawing scale 1:4).
Figure 9.17. Fabric 10, sample 10 — Site M1 (drawing scale 1:4).
Figure 9.17. Fabric 10, sample 10 — Site M1 (drawing scale 1:4).
Sparse, small and irregular limestone inclusions; sparse and irregular brown. Figure 9.18. Site R61, Cooking pot, Wodzinska type Late Roman 39 (drawing scale 1:4).
Sparse, small and irregular limestone inclusions; sparse and irregular brown. Figure 9.18. Site R61, Cooking pot, Wodzinska type Late Roman 39 (drawing scale 1:4).
Abundant brown and grey inclusions of irregular shape and dimensions; sparser white. Figure 9.20. Fabric 9, sample 09 — Site M3 (drawing scale 1:4).
Abundant brown and grey inclusions of irregular shape and dimensions; sparser white. Figure 9.20. Fabric 9, sample 09 — Site M3 (drawing scale 1:4).
Figure 9.19. Fabric 4, sample 04 — Site M3 (drawing scale 1:4).
Figure 9.19. Fabric 4, sample 04 — Site M3 (drawing scale 1:4).
Abundant and irregular brown inclusions; sparse and large black and white. Figure 9.21. Sample 15 — Site M1. This vessel type was represented by a single sherd from a small container attributable to the fusiform series known as Late Roman wnguentarium, and similar to the type Hayes 1971, fig. 1. The example from Mine 1 is characterised by a micaceous fabric similar to LR A3 (Hayes 2008, 117), with evident signs of wheel manufacture. The type is widely documented in the whole Eastern Mediterranean between the late 5"- 7 century AD. Considering the uniformity of the fabric, Hayes assumed a single source, probably in Palestine or Jordan, and the possible content of these small flasks as sanctified oil, also on the basis of Christian monograms or inscriptions present on some examples (Hayes 1971, 246). Later studies, with the aid of mineralogical and petrographic analyses, have documented the existence of local production in Turkey, Northern Syria and Cyprus (Lochner ef a/. 2005). The specialised function of this vessel, related to its precious contents, if not of religious origin, certainly consisting of some tare essence, provides a clue on the social context and who might have made use of it, like the rare examples of fine ware presented below.
Abundant and irregular brown inclusions; sparse and large black and white. Figure 9.21. Sample 15 — Site M1. This vessel type was represented by a single sherd from a small container attributable to the fusiform series known as Late Roman wnguentarium, and similar to the type Hayes 1971, fig. 1. The example from Mine 1 is characterised by a micaceous fabric similar to LR A3 (Hayes 2008, 117), with evident signs of wheel manufacture. The type is widely documented in the whole Eastern Mediterranean between the late 5"- 7 century AD. Considering the uniformity of the fabric, Hayes assumed a single source, probably in Palestine or Jordan, and the possible content of these small flasks as sanctified oil, also on the basis of Christian monograms or inscriptions present on some examples (Hayes 1971, 246). Later studies, with the aid of mineralogical and petrographic analyses, have documented the existence of local production in Turkey, Northern Syria and Cyprus (Lochner ef a/. 2005). The specialised function of this vessel, related to its precious contents, if not of religious origin, certainly consisting of some tare essence, provides a clue on the social context and who might have made use of it, like the rare examples of fine ware presented below.
Figure 9.22. Dish — Site R39 (drawing scale 1:4). ginning of the Roman period, pertinent to the production with calcareous fabric of the Theban region (David 2016, 50-51, fig. 3.1).
Figure 9.22. Dish — Site R39 (drawing scale 1:4). ginning of the Roman period, pertinent to the production with calcareous fabric of the Theban region (David 2016, 50-51, fig. 3.1).
The vessel found at site AE (Figure 9.23, dia. 28cm), broken in situ into mamerous conjoining fragments, is made from a friable and flaky clay of pinkish colour, on the surface of which traces of a red-brown slip are barely visible. It is not classifiable as Terra Sigillata, but as an imitation of it, specifi- cally of the bowl type Hayes 80B/99, produced in African Red Slip Ware, fabric D’, and dated to the 5" century AD (Hayes 1972, 154; Carandini and Tortorella 1980, 105; Mackensen 1993, 406). Imitations of form Hayes 99 are known, for example, at Elephantine, where they occur, quite frequently, in deposits dated between the second quarter of the 5" and the 7° century (Gempeler 1992, 96, Abb 39, 12). Figure 9.23. Bowl — Site AE (drawing scale 1:4). From Site RD 21 comes a ledged bowl with ring base and inturned rim, preserved in four conjoining fragments which gives a complete profile (Figure 9.24, dia. 17cm). The fabric is very fine and hard fired, with a red-brown slip. A parallel is possible with examples from Mons Claudianus, which how- ever, have a different shaped wall, rounded and not sharply carinated (Wodzinska 2010, 142, ER 207), dated to the Tra- janic period. In general the form repeats well known models, starting from Italian Sigillata (form Dragendorff 24/25), but it is closer to the latest type of flanged bowl Hayes 91D, African Red Slip Ware, dated to the 7* century AD.
The vessel found at site AE (Figure 9.23, dia. 28cm), broken in situ into mamerous conjoining fragments, is made from a friable and flaky clay of pinkish colour, on the surface of which traces of a red-brown slip are barely visible. It is not classifiable as Terra Sigillata, but as an imitation of it, specifi- cally of the bowl type Hayes 80B/99, produced in African Red Slip Ware, fabric D’, and dated to the 5" century AD (Hayes 1972, 154; Carandini and Tortorella 1980, 105; Mackensen 1993, 406). Imitations of form Hayes 99 are known, for example, at Elephantine, where they occur, quite frequently, in deposits dated between the second quarter of the 5" and the 7° century (Gempeler 1992, 96, Abb 39, 12). Figure 9.23. Bowl — Site AE (drawing scale 1:4). From Site RD 21 comes a ledged bowl with ring base and inturned rim, preserved in four conjoining fragments which gives a complete profile (Figure 9.24, dia. 17cm). The fabric is very fine and hard fired, with a red-brown slip. A parallel is possible with examples from Mons Claudianus, which how- ever, have a different shaped wall, rounded and not sharply carinated (Wodzinska 2010, 142, ER 207), dated to the Tra- janic period. In general the form repeats well known models, starting from Italian Sigillata (form Dragendorff 24/25), but it is closer to the latest type of flanged bowl Hayes 91D, African Red Slip Ware, dated to the 7* century AD.
- social complexity and function of settlements: the fine tableware ceramics and specialized containers such as the ampulla found Figure 9.25. Distribution of the late bag-shaped amphorae in the area of study, Sudanese Eastern Desert Sites AE, M1, M2, M3, R45, R46, R57, R60, R62, R63, R68 and RDS. From the vastness of the late ancient Eastern Desert of Sudan, and recovered from its less explored areas, (preserved to our knowledge until a few years ago but today devastated by the new gold rush; De Benetti e¢ a/, 2014; Brun ef a/. 2018, 2), the material documents presented here offer valuable information on the following aspects:
- social complexity and function of settlements: the fine tableware ceramics and specialized containers such as the ampulla found Figure 9.25. Distribution of the late bag-shaped amphorae in the area of study, Sudanese Eastern Desert Sites AE, M1, M2, M3, R45, R46, R57, R60, R62, R63, R68 and RDS. From the vastness of the late ancient Eastern Desert of Sudan, and recovered from its less explored areas, (preserved to our knowledge until a few years ago but today devastated by the new gold rush; De Benetti e¢ a/, 2014; Brun ef a/. 2018, 2), the material documents presented here offer valuable information on the following aspects:
Figure 9.24. Ledge-rimmed bowl — Site RD1 (drawing scale 1:4).
Figure 9.24. Ledge-rimmed bowl — Site RD1 (drawing scale 1:4).
The Eastern Desert (Plate 10.1) lies to the east of the Nile Valley in Sudan and Egypt with the Red Sea as its eastern limit. Within it lie the Red Sea Hills, representing one of the major ateas of human occupation in the region. Geologically, this arid land is part of the so-called Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS), which is the eastern portion of the West Sahara Cra- ton and it is very similar to the Sinai Peninsula and especially to the Arabian Peninsula. It is composed of a Precambian basement, rich in metamorphic and igneous rocks, which is characterised by a pre-PanAfrican infrastructure and a PanAfrican superstructure, with tectonic and post-tectonic intrusions (Botros 2002; Johnson and Woldehaimanot 2003; Sidebotham e¢ a/ 2008; Barnard 2012; Klemm and Klemm 2013). Thanks to this complex geological setting, this area is very tich in stone deposits, particularly exploited in ancient times for different purposes, such as in architecture, statuary, tool production and jewellery. Marbles, sandstone, granite and granodiorite were the most common and their deposits were intensively exploited (Harrell and Storemyr 2009), as also were gneiss (Neumayr et a/, 1997; Fowler et af. 2007; Ali et a/. 2011), gabbro (Siddal 2013), steatite (Harrell et a/. 2000; Harrell and Brown 2008) and gemstones, among them amethyst (Shaw and Jameson 1993). Mining activities were particularly intense also for the extraction of metals, like copper and iron, found for example in the mines of the Wadi Abu Gerida area (Abd El-Rahman ef a/, 2013). Gold deposits, which mainly occurred The grinding tools collected by these expeditions are pres- ently kept in the Castiglioni Museum of Varese, and in the Sudan National Museum in Khartoum. During my visits to Plate 10.1. Google Earth satellite map, showing the extent of the Egyptian and Sudanese Eastern Desert.
The Eastern Desert (Plate 10.1) lies to the east of the Nile Valley in Sudan and Egypt with the Red Sea as its eastern limit. Within it lie the Red Sea Hills, representing one of the major ateas of human occupation in the region. Geologically, this arid land is part of the so-called Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS), which is the eastern portion of the West Sahara Cra- ton and it is very similar to the Sinai Peninsula and especially to the Arabian Peninsula. It is composed of a Precambian basement, rich in metamorphic and igneous rocks, which is characterised by a pre-PanAfrican infrastructure and a PanAfrican superstructure, with tectonic and post-tectonic intrusions (Botros 2002; Johnson and Woldehaimanot 2003; Sidebotham e¢ a/ 2008; Barnard 2012; Klemm and Klemm 2013). Thanks to this complex geological setting, this area is very tich in stone deposits, particularly exploited in ancient times for different purposes, such as in architecture, statuary, tool production and jewellery. Marbles, sandstone, granite and granodiorite were the most common and their deposits were intensively exploited (Harrell and Storemyr 2009), as also were gneiss (Neumayr et a/, 1997; Fowler et af. 2007; Ali et a/. 2011), gabbro (Siddal 2013), steatite (Harrell et a/. 2000; Harrell and Brown 2008) and gemstones, among them amethyst (Shaw and Jameson 1993). Mining activities were particularly intense also for the extraction of metals, like copper and iron, found for example in the mines of the Wadi Abu Gerida area (Abd El-Rahman ef a/, 2013). Gold deposits, which mainly occurred The grinding tools collected by these expeditions are pres- ently kept in the Castiglioni Museum of Varese, and in the Sudan National Museum in Khartoum. During my visits to Plate 10.1. Google Earth satellite map, showing the extent of the Egyptian and Sudanese Eastern Desert.
tharchides.* There, the historian reported the presence of different tools, such as hammers, mortars, grindstones and rotary mills, each one used during specific steps of the pro- cess (Eide ef a/. 1996, 657-659; Castiglioni et a, 1995, 28-35; Castiglioni ef a/ 2010). Although the description by Agath- atchides is related to a specific period (¢. 3*-2"¢ century BC), this is a crucial testimony of the extraction techniques used in this region. Moreover, some of the implements described in the text are very similar to those described here, following a possible typological and functional division. the Castiglioni Museum, I observed, analysed and measured 32 macro-lithic tools, many of which have probably been used for gold working. The same function has been suggested for the materials in the Sudan National Museum, four of which were on display, while one was in storage.' They all came from surface collections conducted in different sites of the Eastern Desert (Plate 10.2). The label “macro-lithic tools” has been chosen here following the work of J. L. Adams and other scholars, who consider this term as the best in categorising all the large and heavy lithic tools used for different and specific Plate 10.2. Google Earth satellite map, showing the Sudanese-Nubian Eastern Desert sites reported on in the paper.
tharchides.* There, the historian reported the presence of different tools, such as hammers, mortars, grindstones and rotary mills, each one used during specific steps of the pro- cess (Eide ef a/. 1996, 657-659; Castiglioni et a, 1995, 28-35; Castiglioni ef a/ 2010). Although the description by Agath- atchides is related to a specific period (¢. 3*-2"¢ century BC), this is a crucial testimony of the extraction techniques used in this region. Moreover, some of the implements described in the text are very similar to those described here, following a possible typological and functional division. the Castiglioni Museum, I observed, analysed and measured 32 macro-lithic tools, many of which have probably been used for gold working. The same function has been suggested for the materials in the Sudan National Museum, four of which were on display, while one was in storage.' They all came from surface collections conducted in different sites of the Eastern Desert (Plate 10.2). The label “macro-lithic tools” has been chosen here following the work of J. L. Adams and other scholars, who consider this term as the best in categorising all the large and heavy lithic tools used for different and specific Plate 10.2. Google Earth satellite map, showing the Sudanese-Nubian Eastern Desert sites reported on in the paper.
Plate 10.3. Grindstones and grinders.
Plate 10.3. Grindstones and grinders.
Plate 10.4. Accumulation of materials in.A 16, with the typical oval grinding slabs, also with the double working planes. On the left, a cubic anvil with cupules on the sides. Photograph by A. Castighoni.
Plate 10.4. Accumulation of materials in.A 16, with the typical oval grinding slabs, also with the double working planes. On the left, a cubic anvil with cupules on the sides. Photograph by A. Castighoni.
Plate 10.5. Grindstones and grinders.
Plate 10.5. Grindstones and grinders.
Plate 10.6. Grindstones and grinders.
Plate 10.6. Grindstones and grinders.
Plate 10.7. A grindstone, a possible crusher (N. 17) and grinders.
Plate 10.7. A grindstone, a possible crusher (N. 17) and grinders.
Plate 10.9. Grinding slab and grinders inside a rock. shelter in 10G (Jebel Duweig). Photograph by A. Castiglioni.
Plate 10.9. Grinding slab and grinders inside a rock. shelter in 10G (Jebel Duweig). Photograph by A. Castiglioni.
Plate 10.10. Grinders. A possible crusher-anvil (N. 22) a pestle-grinder (N. 24) and a rotary mill.
Plate 10.10. Grinders. A possible crusher-anvil (N. 22) a pestle-grinder (N. 24) and a rotary mill.
Two other lower parts, coming from Derahib in the Wadi Allaqi, ate stored in the Sudan National Museum. This is one of the most interesting and important sites in the East- ern Desert, visited during the 1990 fieldwork conducted by CeRDO. It is located on the west bank of Wadi Allagi and comprises two fortified structures, a settlement with different dwellings on both sides of a central paved road, an Islamic prayer area and a cemetery. This site has been identified by the Castiglionis as Berenice Pancrisia, described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia, which they also consider as the Town of Allaqi, capital of the Rabi’a clan and an important centre Plate 10.11. Examples of rotary mills. C 38 (top left and right); C 11 (middle left) and Wadi Terfowi (C 14) (middle right); C 33 (bottom left) and Idarib (B 7) (bottom right). Photographs by Alfredo and Angelo Castiglioni.
Two other lower parts, coming from Derahib in the Wadi Allaqi, ate stored in the Sudan National Museum. This is one of the most interesting and important sites in the East- ern Desert, visited during the 1990 fieldwork conducted by CeRDO. It is located on the west bank of Wadi Allagi and comprises two fortified structures, a settlement with different dwellings on both sides of a central paved road, an Islamic prayer area and a cemetery. This site has been identified by the Castiglionis as Berenice Pancrisia, described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia, which they also consider as the Town of Allaqi, capital of the Rabi’a clan and an important centre Plate 10.11. Examples of rotary mills. C 38 (top left and right); C 11 (middle left) and Wadi Terfowi (C 14) (middle right); C 33 (bottom left) and Idarib (B 7) (bottom right). Photographs by Alfredo and Angelo Castiglioni.
Plate 10.12. Rotary mills.
Plate 10.12. Rotary mills.
Plate 10.14. Mound of material in Hofra (C 35), with th typical oval grinding slabs and the anvils-mortars. Photograph by A. Castiglioni Plate 10.13. Two mortar-anvils (N. 31; 34), a pestle (N. 32), a hammerstone (N. 33) and a hammer (N. 35).
Plate 10.14. Mound of material in Hofra (C 35), with th typical oval grinding slabs and the anvils-mortars. Photograph by A. Castiglioni Plate 10.13. Two mortar-anvils (N. 31; 34), a pestle (N. 32), a hammerstone (N. 33) and a hammer (N. 35).
A further mortat/ anvil (N. 34, Plate 10.13) is stored in the
A further mortat/ anvil (N. 34, Plate 10.13) is stored in the
Stone blocks with circular depressions used for gold Plate 10.15..A hammer (N. 36) and a fragment of a possible washing table (N. 37). Sudan National Museum. It is a block of stone, measuring c. 410 x 440 x 220mm, with three cupules on the upper face, 150, 80 and 35mm in diameter, plus two other depressions, all with a worn surface, possible hammering pits and fractures. Together with this stone block, there were also two hammer stones/hammers, one with a rounded triangular shape (N. 35, Plate 10.13), the other irregular (N. 36, Plate 10.15), both with hammering pits and with three depressions on each of the faces, probably the result of the percussion activity or used for holding the tools.
Stone blocks with circular depressions used for gold Plate 10.15..A hammer (N. 36) and a fragment of a possible washing table (N. 37). Sudan National Museum. It is a block of stone, measuring c. 410 x 440 x 220mm, with three cupules on the upper face, 150, 80 and 35mm in diameter, plus two other depressions, all with a worn surface, possible hammering pits and fractures. Together with this stone block, there were also two hammer stones/hammers, one with a rounded triangular shape (N. 35, Plate 10.13), the other irregular (N. 36, Plate 10.15), both with hammering pits and with three depressions on each of the faces, probably the result of the percussion activity or used for holding the tools.
They are mainly made of sandstone and conglomerate, although there are also grinders made of granite (N. 23) and one of siltstone (N. 24). Sandstone was probably used for one of the rotor discs (N. 26), while at least one is made of a metasedi- mentary rock (N. 25), also used for the oblong pestle (N. 32) associated with the mortar; the mortar itself (N. 31) was made Plate 10.16. Washing table excavated in D 5 during the fifth expedition. Photograph by A. Castigloni.
They are mainly made of sandstone and conglomerate, although there are also grinders made of granite (N. 23) and one of siltstone (N. 24). Sandstone was probably used for one of the rotor discs (N. 26), while at least one is made of a metasedi- mentary rock (N. 25), also used for the oblong pestle (N. 32) associated with the mortar; the mortar itself (N. 31) was made Plate 10.16. Washing table excavated in D 5 during the fifth expedition. Photograph by A. Castigloni.
TABLE 10.1. LIST OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS CITED IN THE TEXT, WITH THE RELEVANT GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT).
TABLE 10.1. LIST OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS CITED IN THE TEXT, WITH THE RELEVANT GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT).
TABLE 10.1. LIST OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS CITED IN THE TEXT, WITH THE RELEVANT GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT).
TABLE 10.1. LIST OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS CITED IN THE TEXT, WITH THE RELEVANT GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT).
TABLE 10.1. LIST OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS CITED IN THE TEXT, WITH THE RELEVANT GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT).
TABLE 10.1. LIST OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS CITED IN THE TEXT, WITH THE RELEVANT GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT).
TABLE 10.1. LIST OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS CITED IN THE TEXT, WITH THE RELEVANT GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT).
TABLE 10.1. LIST OF MACRO-LITHIC TOOLS CITED IN THE TEXT, WITH THE RELEVANT GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT).
Plate 11.1. Looking south towards the Bab es-Silik. Plate 11.2. The desert midway between Bab es-Silik and Wadi Murat looking north.
Plate 11.1. Looking south towards the Bab es-Silik. Plate 11.2. The desert midway between Bab es-Silik and Wadi Murat looking north.
Hamed. It was not, however, the only route available be- tween Egypt and Sudan through the Eastern Desert. Another left the Nile at Deroueh (Daraou) a little downstream of Aswan (Figure 11.1). Although this route was longer there were apparently frequent sources of good water along it. It was this route which was used in the 1770s by James Bruce and in the early 19" century by Burckhardt (1819, 163ff.; Hoskins 1835, 19). Bruce’s journey took him direct from Berber to Aswan via the 10 wells at Shikrib and other wells The Korosko Road was one of the most important desert routes connecting Egypt and Sudan. Leaving the Nile along the Wadi Korosko it ran approximately due south crossing the watershed via t 11.1 and 11.2) head he Bab Korosko or Bab es-Silik (Plates ing for the Wadi Murat where there was an abundant source of water reached by digging shallow wells. From there i rejoined the Nile in the vicinity of Abu
Hamed. It was not, however, the only route available be- tween Egypt and Sudan through the Eastern Desert. Another left the Nile at Deroueh (Daraou) a little downstream of Aswan (Figure 11.1). Although this route was longer there were apparently frequent sources of good water along it. It was this route which was used in the 1770s by James Bruce and in the early 19" century by Burckhardt (1819, 163ff.; Hoskins 1835, 19). Bruce’s journey took him direct from Berber to Aswan via the 10 wells at Shikrib and other wells The Korosko Road was one of the most important desert routes connecting Egypt and Sudan. Leaving the Nile along the Wadi Korosko it ran approximately due south crossing the watershed via t 11.1 and 11.2) head he Bab Korosko or Bab es-Silik (Plates ing for the Wadi Murat where there was an abundant source of water reached by digging shallow wells. From there i rejoined the Nile in the vicinity of Abu
Figure 11.1. The Korosko Road and the more easterly route along the Wadi Gabgaba.
Figure 11.1. The Korosko Road and the more easterly route along the Wadi Gabgaba.
Figure 11.2. Map of the watershed along the Korosko Road with th Bab es-Silik and the Bab Korosko (after Sudan Survey Department 1:250,000 map sheet NF-36-] - Murrat).
Figure 11.2. Map of the watershed along the Korosko Road with th Bab es-Silik and the Bab Korosko (after Sudan Survey Department 1:250,000 map sheet NF-36-] - Murrat).
Figure 11.3. The route taken between Abu Hamed and Korosko by Speke and Grant in 1863 (Grant 1884).
Figure 11.3. The route taken between Abu Hamed and Korosko by Speke and Grant in 1863 (Grant 1884).
Plate 11.3. Rock formation between the Nile at Buhen and the Wadi Murat.
Plate 11.3. Rock formation between the Nile at Buhen and the Wadi Murat.
The Korosko Road survey described in this report sought principally to visit a number of sites with Egyptian inscriptions which had been recorded by the expeditions of CeRDO in the Eastern Desert of Sudan (Figure 12.1, Plates 15.1 and 15.2). The recording of additional archaeological sites was secondary to this core aim. The survey is thus not in any way systematic but the results are deemed worthy of publication. Figure 12.1. Sites recorded along the Korosko Road and on the route west towards the Second Cataract (Google Earth satellite image April 2018).
The Korosko Road survey described in this report sought principally to visit a number of sites with Egyptian inscriptions which had been recorded by the expeditions of CeRDO in the Eastern Desert of Sudan (Figure 12.1, Plates 15.1 and 15.2). The recording of additional archaeological sites was secondary to this core aim. The survey is thus not in any way systematic but the results are deemed worthy of publication. Figure 12.1. Sites recorded along the Korosko Road and on the route west towards the Second Cataract (Google Earth satellite image April 2018).
Figure 12.2. Sites in the Wadi Murat (scale 1:10,000) (Google Earth satellite image April 2018)
Figure 12.2. Sites in the Wadi Murat (scale 1:10,000) (Google Earth satellite image April 2018)
Description: Three forts, which dominate the Wadi Murat to the north where wells were dug, are much destroyed. Forts (1) and (2) are on the top of a long narrow and steep-sided ridge overlooking the continuation of the Korosko Road to the south towards the Nile at Abu Hamed. Fort (3) crowns a higher hill 475m to the north west. A little below Fort (3) on its west side is a single rectangular room and a sentry post allowing observation of the wadi and slopes to the south. All the installations are linked by cleared paths following where possible the contours of the hill. Beyond the col at the head of the embayment extending down into the steep slope into a wadi is the rubbish dump (6), a large number of tin cans with some glass bottles and ceramic sherds. The embayment immediately to the west of the ridge occupied by Forts (1) and (2) is cut off from the wadi to the north by a casemated wall and covered with buildings. Rooms A-H were all a part of the casemated wall with C and D flanking the main gate 2.6m wide through it. Within the ‘enclosure’ was an area of stones perhaps where the animals were corralled. Plate 12.1. KRP1 — Forts (1) and (2) looking south across the wadi.
Description: Three forts, which dominate the Wadi Murat to the north where wells were dug, are much destroyed. Forts (1) and (2) are on the top of a long narrow and steep-sided ridge overlooking the continuation of the Korosko Road to the south towards the Nile at Abu Hamed. Fort (3) crowns a higher hill 475m to the north west. A little below Fort (3) on its west side is a single rectangular room and a sentry post allowing observation of the wadi and slopes to the south. All the installations are linked by cleared paths following where possible the contours of the hill. Beyond the col at the head of the embayment extending down into the steep slope into a wadi is the rubbish dump (6), a large number of tin cans with some glass bottles and ceramic sherds. The embayment immediately to the west of the ridge occupied by Forts (1) and (2) is cut off from the wadi to the north by a casemated wall and covered with buildings. Rooms A-H were all a part of the casemated wall with C and D flanking the main gate 2.6m wide through it. Within the ‘enclosure’ was an area of stones perhaps where the animals were corralled. Plate 12.1. KRP1 — Forts (1) and (2) looking south across the wadi.
Plate 12.2. KRP1 — Fort (1).
Plate 12.2. KRP1 — Fort (1).
Plate 12.6. KRP1 — camp gate, Buildings C-D.
Plate 12.6. KRP1 — camp gate, Buildings C-D.
Plate 12.9. KRP1 — camp, Buildings O and P.
Plate 12.9. KRP1 — camp, Buildings O and P.
Plate 12.8. KRP1 — camp, Building P.
Plate 12.8. KRP1 — camp, Building P.
Plate 12.10. KRP1 — camp, Building Z.
Plate 12.10. KRP1 — camp, Building Z.
Plate 12.7. KRP1 — camp, Buildings L-I.
Plate 12.7. KRP1 — camp, Buildings L-I.
Plate 12.12. KRP1 — glazed ceramic bowl rom the rubbish dump.
Plate 12.12. KRP1 — glazed ceramic bowl rom the rubbish dump.
Plate 12.13. KRP1 — tin cans from the rubbish dump.
Plate 12.13. KRP1 — tin cans from the rubbish dump.
Plate 12.20. KRP2 — rock art.
Plate 12.20. KRP2 — rock art.
Plate 12.16. KRP2 — the rock art and inscriptions are on the cliffs close to the wadi floor in the centre of the image.
Plate 12.16. KRP2 — the rock art and inscriptions are on the cliffs close to the wadi floor in the centre of the image.
Plate 12.18. KRP2 — rock art. Plate 12.21. KRP2 — rock art. Plate 12.17. KRP2 — rock art.
Plate 12.18. KRP2 — rock art. Plate 12.21. KRP2 — rock art. Plate 12.17. KRP2 — rock art.
Plate 12.22. KRP2 — recording the Egyptian inscriptions. Plate 12.23. KRP2 — Egyptian inscription.
Plate 12.22. KRP2 — recording the Egyptian inscriptions. Plate 12.23. KRP2 — Egyptian inscription.
Plate 12.26. KRP4 — long-horned cattle and herdsman. Plate 12.28. KRP4 — long-horned cattle and herdsman.
Plate 12.26. KRP4 — long-horned cattle and herdsman. Plate 12.28. KRP4 — long-horned cattle and herdsman.
Metal — lid of a square biscuit tin stamped in an oval HUNTLEY & PALMER BISCUITS with READING & LONDON ENGLAND within (Plate 12.29).
Metal — lid of a square biscuit tin stamped in an oval HUNTLEY & PALMER BISCUITS with READING & LONDON ENGLAND within (Plate 12.29).
Plate 12.30. KRP5-7. KRP7 occupied the summit of the hill pierced by the cave at KRP5. KRP6 sits on the plain immediately to the south. Bibliography: Castiglioni and Castiglioni 2006, 171; Davies, this volume, 185, 187-188
Plate 12.30. KRP5-7. KRP7 occupied the summit of the hill pierced by the cave at KRP5. KRP6 sits on the plain immediately to the south. Bibliography: Castiglioni and Castiglioni 2006, 171; Davies, this volume, 185, 187-188
Plate 12.31. KRP5 — the mouth of the cave on the south-western side of the hill. Plate 12.32. KRP5 — the mouth of the cave on the north-eastern side of the hill.
Plate 12.31. KRP5 — the mouth of the cave on the south-western side of the hill. Plate 12.32. KRP5 — the mouth of the cave on the north-eastern side of the hill.
Plate 12.36. KRP6 — general view with the two stone concentrations visible in the foreground.
Plate 12.36. KRP6 — general view with the two stone concentrations visible in the foreground.
Plate 12.33. KRP5 — recording a rock inscription in the mouti of the cave with the plain to the south west beyond.
Plate 12.33. KRP5 — recording a rock inscription in the mouti of the cave with the plain to the south west beyond.
Plate 12.34. KRP5 — rock art immediately inside the south-western mouth of the cave. Plate 12.35. KRP5 — rock art immediately outside the south-western mouth of the cave.
Plate 12.34. KRP5 — rock art immediately inside the south-western mouth of the cave. Plate 12.35. KRP5 — rock art immediately outside the south-western mouth of the cave.
Plate 12.37. KRP6 — the stone spread and occupation scatter.
Plate 12.37. KRP6 — the stone spread and occupation scatter.
Plate 12.38. KRP6 — concentration of stones. Pottery — Five sherds from the surface scatter.
Plate 12.38. KRP6 — concentration of stones. Pottery — Five sherds from the surface scatter.
Plate 12.43. KRP8(8) and (9). Plate 12.41. KRP8 — general view of the hill from the south with th cliff face on which the rock art and inscriptions are carved.
Plate 12.43. KRP8(8) and (9). Plate 12.41. KRP8 — general view of the hill from the south with th cliff face on which the rock art and inscriptions are carved.
Plate 12.45. KRP8 — Egyptian inscriptions and rock art; long-horned cattle. Plate 12.44. KRP8 — rock art with long-horned cattle and ‘trophy’. Plate 12.46. KISPS rock art; long-horned cattle with infilled bodies.
Plate 12.45. KRP8 — Egyptian inscriptions and rock art; long-horned cattle. Plate 12.44. KRP8 — rock art with long-horned cattle and ‘trophy’. Plate 12.46. KISPS rock art; long-horned cattle with infilled bodies.
Plate 12.42. KRP8(6) — stone structure associated with pottery sherds.
Plate 12.42. KRP8(6) — stone structure associated with pottery sherds.
* For the Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project type series of monuments see https://nubianstudiessociety. files. wordpress.com/2014/02/mdasp_ts_12-2012.pdf
* For the Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project type series of monuments see https://nubianstudiessociety. files. wordpress.com/2014/02/mdasp_ts_12-2012.pdf
Plate 12.48. KRP8 — rock art; a row of long-horned cattle processing left, with infilled bodies. Plate 12.47. KRP8 — rock art; long-horned cattle.
Plate 12.48. KRP8 — rock art; a row of long-horned cattle processing left, with infilled bodies. Plate 12.47. KRP8 — rock art; long-horned cattle.
Plate 12.53. KRP10 — rock art; long-horned cattle with infilled bodies or in outline moving right. Between two of the cattle zs an anthropomorph.
Plate 12.53. KRP10 — rock art; long-horned cattle with infilled bodies or in outline moving right. Between two of the cattle zs an anthropomorph.
Plate 12.54. KRP10 — rock art; long-horned cattle with infilled bodies moving right and two in outline moving left and a sub-circular motif. Possible anthropomorph on the left of the panel.
Plate 12.54. KRP10 — rock art; long-horned cattle with infilled bodies moving right and two in outline moving left and a sub-circular motif. Possible anthropomorph on the left of the panel.
Plate 12.57. KRP12 — general view. Plate 12.59. KRP12(2) — the tumulus.
Plate 12.57. KRP12 — general view. Plate 12.59. KRP12(2) — the tumulus.
Plate 12.58. KRP12(1) — recording the tumulus.
Plate 12.58. KRP12(1) — recording the tumulus.
Plate 12.60. KRP12(4) — the stone structure after clearing away windblown sand.
Plate 12.60. KRP12(4) — the stone structure after clearing away windblown sand.
Description: A range of features are visible within a sparse occupation scatter with some pot sherds, lithics and a grindin: base. These include three tumuli, a concentration of stones and, to the south east of the tumuli along the edge of the wadi a line of stones (MDASP type LNO1a) 10s of metres in length. There are also features of types CS08, CS09, SSO2 and SS10
Description: A range of features are visible within a sparse occupation scatter with some pot sherds, lithics and a grindin: base. These include three tumuli, a concentration of stones and, to the south east of the tumuli along the edge of the wadi a line of stones (MDASP type LNO1a) 10s of metres in length. There are also features of types CS08, CS09, SSO2 and SS10
Plate 12.64. KRP14 — rock art on the top of the boulder. The inscription is on its left-hand side. consist of single lines of closely spaced dots and carefully incised curvilinear grooves the overall scheme of which is unclear.
Plate 12.64. KRP14 — rock art on the top of the boulder. The inscription is on its left-hand side. consist of single lines of closely spaced dots and carefully incised curvilinear grooves the overall scheme of which is unclear.
Metal — a ‘tinny’ (Plate 12.68) marked on the top with the following:
Metal — a ‘tinny’ (Plate 12.68) marked on the top with the following:
Figure 12.4. KRP18, scale 1:10,000 (Google Earth satellite image, April 2018).
Figure 12.4. KRP18, scale 1:10,000 (Google Earth satellite image, April 2018).
Plate 12.69. KRP18 — looking north from the Khashm el-Bab to the Bab es-Silik. (8) is in the sandy khot in the foreground, (1) and (6) are on the rock, outcrop on the right.
Plate 12.69. KRP18 — looking north from the Khashm el-Bab to the Bab es-Silik. (8) is in the sandy khot in the foreground, (1) and (6) are on the rock, outcrop on the right.
Plate 12.71. KRP18 (4) — tent base?
Plate 12.71. KRP18 (4) — tent base?
Plate 12.72. KRP18 (5) — rock shelter with occupation scatter on the slope below it.
Plate 12.72. KRP18 (5) — rock shelter with occupation scatter on the slope below it.
Plate 12.70. KRP18 — looking south from the Khashm el-Bab. (1) and (6) are on the rock outcrop on the left.
Plate 12.70. KRP18 — looking south from the Khashm el-Bab. (1) and (6) are on the rock outcrop on the left.
Plate 12.74. KRP19(1) and (2) — general view from (3). (1) is on the top of the bill, (2) in the wadi at its base.
Plate 12.74. KRP19(1) and (2) — general view from (3). (1) is on the top of the bill, (2) in the wadi at its base.
Plate 12.78. KRP19(2b) — the squared off south-eastern end of the stone alignments.
Plate 12.78. KRP19(2b) — the squared off south-eastern end of the stone alignments.
Plate 12.76. KRP19(2b) — general view looking south east.
Plate 12.76. KRP19(2b) — general view looking south east.
Plate 12.75. KRP19(1) — general view looking north into the Khashm el-Bab. Plate 12.77. KRP19(2a) — detail of construction.
Plate 12.75. KRP19(1) — general view looking north into the Khashm el-Bab. Plate 12.77. KRP19(2a) — detail of construction.
Figure 12.6. KRP19(3), scale 1:1,000 (Google Earth satellite image April 2018).
Figure 12.6. KRP19(3), scale 1:1,000 (Google Earth satellite image April 2018).
Plate 12.81. KRP19(3) — the inscriptions are carved into the top and sloping upper part of the face of the outcrop.
Plate 12.81. KRP19(3) — the inscriptions are carved into the top and sloping upper part of the face of the outcrop.
Plate 12.83. KRP19(3) — complete pottery vessel set amongst the rocks of the outcrop.
Plate 12.83. KRP19(3) — complete pottery vessel set amongst the rocks of the outcrop.
* Stayed / camped / arrived * AH 1269 = beginning 15" October AD 1852 AH 1270 = beginning 4° October AD 1853
* Stayed / camped / arrived * AH 1269 = beginning 15" October AD 1852 AH 1270 = beginning 4° October AD 1853
Plate 12.86. KRP20 looking north towards the Khashm el-Bab — the site by the rock face on the right. Location: On the east side of the wadi down from the Khashm el-Bab just before it debouches into the plain to the south. A massive boulder is detached from the cliff face and the rock art is inscribed on the bedrock and on the adjacent boulder face (Plates 12.86 and 12.87).
Plate 12.86. KRP20 looking north towards the Khashm el-Bab — the site by the rock face on the right. Location: On the east side of the wadi down from the Khashm el-Bab just before it debouches into the plain to the south. A massive boulder is detached from the cliff face and the rock art is inscribed on the bedrock and on the adjacent boulder face (Plates 12.86 and 12.87).
Plate 12.88. KRP20 rock art on the rear face of the isolated boulder — giraffe and an infilled long-horned cow.
Plate 12.88. KRP20 rock art on the rear face of the isolated boulder — giraffe and an infilled long-horned cow.
Plate 12.87. KRP20 - the rock art is on the left side and back of the large boulder and on the rock wall beyond it.
Plate 12.87. KRP20 - the rock art is on the left side and back of the large boulder and on the rock wall beyond it.
Plate 12.90. KRP20 rock art on the rear face of the isolated boulder — detail of a giraffe.
Plate 12.90. KRP20 rock art on the rear face of the isolated boulder — detail of a giraffe.
* For discussions of this motif only known from a later Kushite context see Kleinitz 2008a; 2008b. For examples of the motif on pottery see Woolley a1
* For discussions of this motif only known from a later Kushite context see Kleinitz 2008a; 2008b. For examples of the motif on pottery see Woolley a1
Figure 12.8. KRP23, scale 1:4,000 (Google Earth satellite image, April 2018).
Figure 12.8. KRP23, scale 1:4,000 (Google Earth satellite image, April 2018).
Plate 12.97. KRP23(1) — frieze of animals. Plate 12.99. KRP23(2) — the cave entrance.
Plate 12.97. KRP23(1) — frieze of animals. Plate 12.99. KRP23(2) — the cave entrance.
Plate 12.95. KRP23(1) — the rock art is on the smooth rock wall to the right of the rock shelter entrance.
Plate 12.95. KRP23(1) — the rock art is on the smooth rock wall to the right of the rock shelter entrance.
Plate 12.101. KRP23(3) - camel carved on a loose block.
Plate 12.101. KRP23(3) - camel carved on a loose block.
Plate 12.96. KRP23(1) — detail of the long horned-cattle facing right and left. One appears to have been modified, the head being crowned with a long neck and birds head with prominent curving beak.
Plate 12.96. KRP23(1) — detail of the long horned-cattle facing right and left. One appears to have been modified, the head being crowned with a long neck and birds head with prominent curving beak.
Plate 12.100. KRP23 (2) — glyphs within the cave.
Plate 12.100. KRP23 (2) — glyphs within the cave.
Plate 12.98. KRP23(1) — long-horned cattle and billy goat.
Plate 12.98. KRP23(1) — long-horned cattle and billy goat.
Plate 12.102. KRP23 (4) — rock art carved on the bedrock pavement
Plate 12.102. KRP23 (4) — rock art carved on the bedrock pavement
Plate 12.106. KRP23(5) — general view over the area of the Neolithic occupation scatter. Plate 12.105. KRP23 (4) — anthropomorphs rendered in red paint.
Plate 12.106. KRP23(5) — general view over the area of the Neolithic occupation scatter. Plate 12.105. KRP23 (4) — anthropomorphs rendered in red paint.
Plate 12.107. KRP23(6) — the rock shelter.
Plate 12.107. KRP23(6) — the rock shelter.
Plate 12.103. KRP23 (4) — anthropomorphs holding palm fronds, and quadrupeds.
Plate 12.103. KRP23 (4) — anthropomorphs holding palm fronds, and quadrupeds.
Plate 12.104. KRP23(4) — a hunter armed with a bow and arrow stalking a quadruped.
Plate 12.104. KRP23(4) — a hunter armed with a bow and arrow stalking a quadruped.
Plate 12.110. KRP23(6) — birds.
Plate 12.110. KRP23(6) — birds.
Plate 12.114. KRP23(7) — general view of the rock shelter.
Plate 12.114. KRP23(7) — general view of the rock shelter.
Plate 12.113. KRP23(7) — glyphs.
Plate 12.113. KRP23(7) — glyphs.
Plate 12.115. KRP23(7) — glyphs.
Plate 12.115. KRP23(7) — glyphs.
Plate 12.116 KRP23(7) — long-horned cattle, other quadrupeds and glyphs.
Plate 12.116 KRP23(7) — long-horned cattle, other quadrupeds and glyphs.
Plate 12.117. El-Kab — one of the symbols in the rock shelter adjacent to the post-medieval fort.
Plate 12.117. El-Kab — one of the symbols in the rock shelter adjacent to the post-medieval fort.
Plate 13.4. No. 06-00-04, site KRP6.
Plate 13.4. No. 06-00-04, site KRP6.
Plate 13.10. No. 06-00-08, site KRP6. Plate 13.7. No. 06-00-07, site KRP6.
Plate 13.10. No. 06-00-08, site KRP6. Plate 13.7. No. 06-00-07, site KRP6.
Plate 13.11. No. 06-00-09, site KRP6. Plate 13.13. No. 06-00-13, site KRP6.
Plate 13.11. No. 06-00-09, site KRP6. Plate 13.13. No. 06-00-13, site KRP6.
Plate 13.2. No. 06-00-02, site KRP6. Plate 13.3. No. 06-00-03, site KRP6.
Plate 13.2. No. 06-00-02, site KRP6. Plate 13.3. No. 06-00-03, site KRP6.
Plate 13.5. No. 06-00-05, site KRP6. Plate 13.1. No. 06-00-01, site KRP6.
Plate 13.5. No. 06-00-05, site KRP6. Plate 13.1. No. 06-00-01, site KRP6.
Plate 13.23. No. 08-01-05, site KRP8.
Plate 13.23. No. 08-01-05, site KRP8.
Plate 13.26. No. 08-04-08, site KRP8. Plate 13.16. No. 07-00-04, site KRP7.
Plate 13.26. No. 08-04-08, site KRP8. Plate 13.16. No. 07-00-04, site KRP7.
Plate 13.18. No. 07-00-05, site KRP7.
Plate 13.18. No. 07-00-05, site KRP7.
A total of 73 sherds was collected in both areas and ap- peared to originate from a single vessel, which could be partly reconstructed (nos 08-06-11 and 08-07-12, Plate 13.30, Fig- ure 13.1). The vessel was made of a fabric belonging to the MARL D family, a very dense fabric showing a dark greyish
A total of 73 sherds was collected in both areas and ap- peared to originate from a single vessel, which could be partly reconstructed (nos 08-06-11 and 08-07-12, Plate 13.30, Fig- ure 13.1). The vessel was made of a fabric belonging to the MARL D family, a very dense fabric showing a dark greyish
Plate 13.29. Remains of the circular stone structure on KRP8 area 6. amphora, especially in such extreme weather conditions as in the desert. These difficulties may, however, have been partly alleviated by the presence of multiple caches along the route.
Plate 13.29. Remains of the circular stone structure on KRP8 area 6. amphora, especially in such extreme weather conditions as in the desert. These difficulties may, however, have been partly alleviated by the presence of multiple caches along the route.
Plate 13.27. No. 08-05-10, site KRP8.
Plate 13.27. No. 08-05-10, site KRP8.
Plate 13.31. Amphora from the CeRDO survey, Sudan National Museum no. 31405.
Plate 13.31. Amphora from the CeRDO survey, Sudan National Museum no. 31405.
3.2.5. KRP8 areas 8 and 9
3.2.5. KRP8 areas 8 and 9
Plate 13.36. No. 08-09-16, site KRPS. 08-09-17 (Plate 13.38), is poorly preserved; it is again made of a mineral fabric, and one can see on its surface the remains of a dotted impressed decoration.
Plate 13.36. No. 08-09-16, site KRPS. 08-09-17 (Plate 13.38), is poorly preserved; it is again made of a mineral fabric, and one can see on its surface the remains of a dotted impressed decoration.
Plate 13.35. No. 08-08-15, site KRPS. Plate 13.33. No. 08-08-13, site KRPS.
Plate 13.35. No. 08-08-15, site KRPS. Plate 13.33. No. 08-08-13, site KRPS.
well attested in assemblages dated to the Kerma Ancien.” Neolithic contexts also provide that kind of lip decora- tion, but in a thicker form.”' The last piece in this area, no.
well attested in assemblages dated to the Kerma Ancien.” Neolithic contexts also provide that kind of lip decora- tion, but in a thicker form.”' The last piece in this area, no.
Plate 13.34. No. 08-08-14, site KRPS. 3.3.2. KRP9 area 2
Plate 13.34. No. 08-08-14, site KRPS. 3.3.2. KRP9 area 2
New Kingdom amphorae (Aston 2004, 185). No. 09-01-02 (Plate 13.40) is hand-made in a rather fine mineral-tempered fabric. The inner surface is black and very smooth while the outer surface is red but quite eroded. It looks like the product of a Middle Nubian cultural group, possibly Kerma.
New Kingdom amphorae (Aston 2004, 185). No. 09-01-02 (Plate 13.40) is hand-made in a rather fine mineral-tempered fabric. The inner surface is black and very smooth while the outer surface is red but quite eroded. It looks like the product of a Middle Nubian cultural group, possibly Kerma.
Plate 13.39. No. 09-01-01, site KRP9.
Plate 13.39. No. 09-01-01, site KRP9.
found on sites KRP6 and KRP7 described above.” No. 13- 00-02 (Plate 13.42) is a large body sherd made in a fabric with mineral inclusions. The inside is red and smoothed but the outside has been damaged by erosion, so it is not possible to determine the manufacturing technology. Hand-made in a mineral tempered fabric, no. 13-00-03 (Plate 13.43) has a are both decorated with incisions on the rim and on the body. No. 16-00-02 (Plate 13.45) has short oblique crossing lines on the rim and oblique multiple lines below, probably in the form of a reversed triangle, and a repair hole. A similar decoration can be observed on No. 16-00-03 (Plate 13.46), except that the short lines on the rim do not cross each other but ate parallel.
found on sites KRP6 and KRP7 described above.” No. 13- 00-02 (Plate 13.42) is a large body sherd made in a fabric with mineral inclusions. The inside is red and smoothed but the outside has been damaged by erosion, so it is not possible to determine the manufacturing technology. Hand-made in a mineral tempered fabric, no. 13-00-03 (Plate 13.43) has a are both decorated with incisions on the rim and on the body. No. 16-00-02 (Plate 13.45) has short oblique crossing lines on the rim and oblique multiple lines below, probably in the form of a reversed triangle, and a repair hole. A similar decoration can be observed on No. 16-00-03 (Plate 13.46), except that the short lines on the rim do not cross each other but ate parallel.
Plate 13.52. Nos 16-00-04 and 10-13, site KRP16. Plate 13.50. No. 16-00-06, site KRP16. vessel (no. 18-05-08), ate incised with deep parallel lines (Plate 13.53). The surface is black inside and brown to red outside, while the coarse alluvial organic-tempered fabric appears black in section. Such a type of decoration is typical of Pan-Grave cooking pots.” Two other undecorated pieces (no. 18-05-09) are probably also of Middle Nubian cultural origin (Plate 13.54). The identity of fragments no. 18-05-10 and no. 18-05-16 (Plates 13.55 and 13.56) is more problem- atic although a Middle Nubian origin cannot be ruled out.
Plate 13.52. Nos 16-00-04 and 10-13, site KRP16. Plate 13.50. No. 16-00-06, site KRP16. vessel (no. 18-05-08), ate incised with deep parallel lines (Plate 13.53). The surface is black inside and brown to red outside, while the coarse alluvial organic-tempered fabric appears black in section. Such a type of decoration is typical of Pan-Grave cooking pots.” Two other undecorated pieces (no. 18-05-09) are probably also of Middle Nubian cultural origin (Plate 13.54). The identity of fragments no. 18-05-10 and no. 18-05-16 (Plates 13.55 and 13.56) is more problem- atic although a Middle Nubian origin cannot be ruled out.
Finally, four body sherds from area 7 were recorded as three containers. All of them come from hand-made pottery with rather thick walls, coarse fabric and a roughly polished or burnished surface. They remain unidentified so far.
Finally, four body sherds from area 7 were recorded as three containers. All of them come from hand-made pottery with rather thick walls, coarse fabric and a roughly polished or burnished surface. They remain unidentified so far.
Plate 13.57. No. 18-05-17, site KRP18. Plate 13.58. No. 18-05-18, site KRP18.
Plate 13.57. No. 18-05-17, site KRP18. Plate 13.58. No. 18-05-18, site KRP18.
Plate 13.59. No. 18-02-05, site KRP78.
Plate 13.59. No. 18-02-05, site KRP78.
Plate 13.60. No. 18-01-01, site KRP18.
Plate 13.60. No. 18-01-01, site KRP18.
Plate 13.65. No. 18-04-07), inner surface, site KRP78.
Plate 13.65. No. 18-04-07), inner surface, site KRP78.
Plate 13.61. No. 18-01-02, site KRP18.
Plate 13.61. No. 18-01-02, site KRP18.
Plate 13.63. No. 18-04-07a, inner surface, site KRP18.
Plate 13.63. No. 18-04-07a, inner surface, site KRP18.
Plate 13.64. No. 18-04-07a, outer surface, site KRP18.
Plate 13.64. No. 18-04-07a, outer surface, site KRP18.
Plate 13.66. No. 18-04-07b, outer surface, site KRP18.
Plate 13.66. No. 18-04-07b, outer surface, site KRP18.
Plate 13.67. No. 18-04-07c, inner surface, site KRP18. Plate 13.68. No. 18-04-07., outer surface, site KRP18.
Plate 13.67. No. 18-04-07c, inner surface, site KRP18. Plate 13.68. No. 18-04-07., outer surface, site KRP18.
Plate 13.69. No. 18-04-07d, site KRP78. Plate 13.70. No. 18-07-12, site KRP18.
Plate 13.69. No. 18-04-07d, site KRP78. Plate 13.70. No. 18-07-12, site KRP18.
Plate 13.71. No. 18-07-12, detail view of the string-cut base, site KRP18.
Plate 13.71. No. 18-07-12, detail view of the string-cut base, site KRP18.
Fragments of wheelmade vessels made of fine mineral- tempered pink or pinkish beige fabrics were also observed on this site (nos 19-03-06—-09). Nine sherds may belong to two different pots. They are covered with yellow to brown and green lustrous coatings but ate in a very fragmentary and eroded condition (Plates 13.77 and 13.78). One body sherd with a pinkish coating outside and one rim were recorded (Plates 13.79 and 13.80). These wheelmade pots may be contemporary with the vars.
Fragments of wheelmade vessels made of fine mineral- tempered pink or pinkish beige fabrics were also observed on this site (nos 19-03-06—-09). Nine sherds may belong to two different pots. They are covered with yellow to brown and green lustrous coatings but ate in a very fragmentary and eroded condition (Plates 13.77 and 13.78). One body sherd with a pinkish coating outside and one rim were recorded (Plates 13.79 and 13.80). These wheelmade pots may be contemporary with the vars.
Plate 13.78. No. 19-03-08, site KRP19.
Plate 13.78. No. 19-03-08, site KRP19.
Plate 13.80. No. 19-03-09, site KRP19.
Plate 13.80. No. 19-03-09, site KRP19.
Plate 13.84. No. 23-04-14, site KRP23. Plate 13.81. No. 23-04-12, site KRP23.
Plate 13.84. No. 23-04-14, site KRP23. Plate 13.81. No. 23-04-12, site KRP23.
Plate 13.87. Lithic tool from site KRP23 area 5.
Plate 13.87. Lithic tool from site KRP23 area 5.
Plate 13.88. Lithic tool from site KRP23 area 5.
Plate 13.88. Lithic tool from site KRP23 area 5.
Plate 13.85. No. 23-05-16A-F, site KRP23. Plate 13.82. No. 23-04-13, site KRP23,
Plate 13.85. No. 23-05-16A-F, site KRP23. Plate 13.82. No. 23-04-13, site KRP23,
Plate 13.89. No. 23-06-17, site KRP23.
Plate 13.89. No. 23-06-17, site KRP23.
Plate 13.92. No. 23-07-08, site KRP23. The second piece is a hand-made reddish-brown body sherd (no. 23-10-11). Remains of an incised decoration can be observed on its outer surface. It consists of lines drawn in presumably horizontal and oblique orientations and possibly of Middle Nubian culture, although the colour of the fabric would be quite unusual in that case (Plate 13.96).
Plate 13.92. No. 23-07-08, site KRP23. The second piece is a hand-made reddish-brown body sherd (no. 23-10-11). Remains of an incised decoration can be observed on its outer surface. It consists of lines drawn in presumably horizontal and oblique orientations and possibly of Middle Nubian culture, although the colour of the fabric would be quite unusual in that case (Plate 13.96).
Lanceolate hand-axes like that found at site KRP18(8) (Plate 14.1) are common to Middle Pleistocene/Early to Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Nile Valley. The first known assem- blage that produced similar artefacts is Khor Abu Anga, discovered by Arkell (1949) in the area of Omdurman, close to Khartoum; during the Nubian Salvage Campaign other sites of the same phase were found at Arkin District, notably Arkin 8 (Chmielewski 1968). The material recovered at these sites come from surface context but a dating at the Middle Pleistocene/ Middle Palaeolithic period has been recently substantiated by the excavation at Sai island, slightly upstream from the Second Cataract (Van Peer 2004; (Van Peer, ef a/. 2003; 2004). Here hand-axes have been found in a Late Acheulean/Sangoan inter-stratified context dating c. 180 Ka. Plate 14.1. KRP18(8) — hand-axe. To a later period may be possibly attributed the denticulated tool from KRP9(4) (Plate 14.2) made ona multiplatform core blade-like blank. Denticulated tools start to appear common in association with core technologies, especially with Leval- lois, in Middle Palaeolithic (Guichard and Guichard 1968).
Lanceolate hand-axes like that found at site KRP18(8) (Plate 14.1) are common to Middle Pleistocene/Early to Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Nile Valley. The first known assem- blage that produced similar artefacts is Khor Abu Anga, discovered by Arkell (1949) in the area of Omdurman, close to Khartoum; during the Nubian Salvage Campaign other sites of the same phase were found at Arkin District, notably Arkin 8 (Chmielewski 1968). The material recovered at these sites come from surface context but a dating at the Middle Pleistocene/ Middle Palaeolithic period has been recently substantiated by the excavation at Sai island, slightly upstream from the Second Cataract (Van Peer 2004; (Van Peer, ef a/. 2003; 2004). Here hand-axes have been found in a Late Acheulean/Sangoan inter-stratified context dating c. 180 Ka. Plate 14.1. KRP18(8) — hand-axe. To a later period may be possibly attributed the denticulated tool from KRP9(4) (Plate 14.2) made ona multiplatform core blade-like blank. Denticulated tools start to appear common in association with core technologies, especially with Leval- lois, in Middle Palaeolithic (Guichard and Guichard 1968).
Plate 14.2. KRP9(4) — denticulated tool. 14. The hand-axe and denticulated tool
Plate 14.2. KRP9(4) — denticulated tool. 14. The hand-axe and denticulated tool
Plate 15.1. CeRDO map of Eastern Desert identifying ancient routes and sites with Egyptian inscriptions (courtesy Alfredo and Angelo Castighoni).
Plate 15.1. CeRDO map of Eastern Desert identifying ancient routes and sites with Egyptian inscriptions (courtesy Alfredo and Angelo Castighoni).
Plate 15.2. Korosko Road Project (KRP) map, showing route followed and sites documented.
Plate 15.2. Korosko Road Project (KRP) map, showing route followed and sites documented.
Plate 15.6. KRP5, north side, Bert Verrept recording inscription. Plate 15.7. KRP5, north side, inscription of Paitsy.
Plate 15.6. KRP5, north side, Bert Verrept recording inscription. Plate 15.7. KRP5, north side, inscription of Paitsy.
Plate 15.3. KRP5, Wadi Tonaidba, cave, entrance from west.
Plate 15.3. KRP5, Wadi Tonaidba, cave, entrance from west.
temporary amphorae (Plate 15.10).'* The third is the ‘Chief of Miam, Mert’, a successor of Hekanefer, known from the Khashm el-Bab (KRP18, no. 21, below). native), is well known from his tomb at Debeira/Serra (ancient Tehkhet) and other monuments. Belonging to a family of indigenous chiefs (preceded as chief by his father and suc- ceeded by his brother) with relatives /forebears in Aswan, he governed his region as part of the colonial administration of the early 18" Dynasty.’ Several of his other inscriptions associate him closely with Queen Hatshepsut. The presence of his name, title, and image at Umm Nabari, marking his authority and reach, suggests that his duties included over- sight of the gold-mining area. He is one of three ‘Chiefs’, no doubt with similar briefs, attested as travelling in the Nubian Eastern Desert.'° The second, also of the 18" Dynasty, is the well-known ‘Chief of Miam (Aniba), Hekanefer’, who served Tutankhamun’s viceroy, Huy. His title and name oc- cur at CeRDO site A (Plates 15.1 and 15.2) incised in large hieroglyphs into the rear wall of a rock-shelter (Plates 15.8 and 15.9)" in front of which were found fraoments of con-
temporary amphorae (Plate 15.10).'* The third is the ‘Chief of Miam, Mert’, a successor of Hekanefer, known from the Khashm el-Bab (KRP18, no. 21, below). native), is well known from his tomb at Debeira/Serra (ancient Tehkhet) and other monuments. Belonging to a family of indigenous chiefs (preceded as chief by his father and suc- ceeded by his brother) with relatives /forebears in Aswan, he governed his region as part of the colonial administration of the early 18" Dynasty.’ Several of his other inscriptions associate him closely with Queen Hatshepsut. The presence of his name, title, and image at Umm Nabari, marking his authority and reach, suggests that his duties included over- sight of the gold-mining area. He is one of three ‘Chiefs’, no doubt with similar briefs, attested as travelling in the Nubian Eastern Desert.'° The second, also of the 18" Dynasty, is the well-known ‘Chief of Miam (Aniba), Hekanefer’, who served Tutankhamun’s viceroy, Huy. His title and name oc- cur at CeRDO site A (Plates 15.1 and 15.2) incised in large hieroglyphs into the rear wall of a rock-shelter (Plates 15.8 and 15.9)" in front of which were found fraoments of con-
Plate 15.10. CeRDO site_A, ceramic remains, with Alfredo Castighioni (courtesy CeRDO).
Plate 15.10. CeRDO site_A, ceramic remains, with Alfredo Castighioni (courtesy CeRDO).
Plate 15.8. CeRDO site A, cave of Hekanefer (courtesy CeRDO).
Plate 15.8. CeRDO site A, cave of Hekanefer (courtesy CeRDO).
Plate 15.9. CeRDO site A, inscription of Hekanefer, with Alfredo Castighoni (courtesy CeRDO).
Plate 15.9. CeRDO site A, inscription of Hekanefer, with Alfredo Castighoni (courtesy CeRDO).
Plate 15.16. KRP8, 2, south, two inscriptions, upper with titles and name of Hornakht and fitiation, lower incomplete. Plate 15.14. KRP8, 1, north, titles of Hornakht.
Plate 15.16. KRP8, 2, south, two inscriptions, upper with titles and name of Hornakht and fitiation, lower incomplete. Plate 15.14. KRP8, 1, north, titles of Hornakht.
Figure 15.2. KRP8, 1, north, titles and name of Hornakht.
Figure 15.2. KRP8, 1, north, titles and name of Hornakht.
Plate 15.15. KRP8, 2, south, rock-drawings and inscriptions.
Plate 15.15. KRP8, 2, south, rock-drawings and inscriptions.
Figure 15.4. KRP8, 2, south, two inscriptions, upper including Hornakht titles and filiation.
Figure 15.4. KRP8, 2, south, two inscriptions, upper including Hornakht titles and filiation.
Plate 15.17. KRP8, 2, detail, end of upper inscription, toponym, ‘Miam’.
Plate 15.17. KRP8, 2, detail, end of upper inscription, toponym, ‘Miam’.
Plate 15.18. KRP8, 2, to right of main inscription, titl, ‘Deputy’.
Plate 15.18. KRP8, 2, to right of main inscription, titl, ‘Deputy’.
Another son, ‘Retainer (Smsw) Haty’, appears to be attested here for the first time; he is to be added (with KRP18, nos 9, 282-5, III.1; KRITA IV, 202-205; DRITANC IV, 246-248; KRI VIL, 247, IIL1; KRITA VI, 170; ZAba 1974, 146-7, no. 123; Gnirs 2013, 683, n. 183; Miller 2013, 202, 2.5.1, no. 18 (without recognizing the filiation). Ramesses VI), also from Aniba (Miller 2013, 46, 48, 77-78, 319-320, An. 2.7. no. 4; Auenmiiller 2013, 928, BMAniba-06).
Another son, ‘Retainer (Smsw) Haty’, appears to be attested here for the first time; he is to be added (with KRP18, nos 9, 282-5, III.1; KRITA IV, 202-205; DRITANC IV, 246-248; KRI VIL, 247, IIL1; KRITA VI, 170; ZAba 1974, 146-7, no. 123; Gnirs 2013, 683, n. 183; Miller 2013, 202, 2.5.1, no. 18 (without recognizing the filiation). Ramesses VI), also from Aniba (Miller 2013, 46, 48, 77-78, 319-320, An. 2.7. no. 4; Auenmiiller 2013, 928, BMAniba-06).
Figure 15.6. KRP8, 4, south, inscription of Tuy. Plate 15.21. KRP8, 4, south, Horus-figure with inscription of Tiy.
Figure 15.6. KRP8, 4, south, inscription of Tuy. Plate 15.21. KRP8, 4, south, Horus-figure with inscription of Tiy.
Plate 15.22. KRP9, Wadi Tonaidba, cave.
Plate 15.22. KRP9, Wadi Tonaidba, cave.
Figure 15.7. KRP9, 1, Mayor Mesu. Plate 15.23. KRP9, 1, inscription of Mayor Mesu.
Figure 15.7. KRP9, 1, Mayor Mesu. Plate 15.23. KRP9, 1, inscription of Mayor Mesu.
Plate 15.24. KRP9, 2-3, interior inscriptions, including (bottom right) High Priest Nebnetjeru.
Plate 15.24. KRP9, 2-3, interior inscriptions, including (bottom right) High Priest Nebnetjeru.
Figure 15.8. KRP9, 2, High Priest Nebneferu.
Figure 15.8. KRP9, 2, High Priest Nebneferu.
Plate 15.27. KRP13, inscription of Scribe Nyny. Plate 15.26. KRP13, cave, from west (Photograph: Derek, Welsby).
Plate 15.27. KRP13, inscription of Scribe Nyny. Plate 15.26. KRP13, cave, from west (Photograph: Derek, Welsby).
Figure 15.9. KRP13, Scribe Nyny.
Figure 15.9. KRP13, Scribe Nyny.
Plate 15.30. KRP14, inscription with indigenous name and dedication to Horus.
Plate 15.30. KRP14, inscription with indigenous name and dedication to Horus.
Plate 15.31. KRP18, Khashm el-Bab, from the south. Plate 15.32. KRP18, decorated face, from the west (Photograph: Bert Verrept).
Plate 15.31. KRP18, Khashm el-Bab, from the south. Plate 15.32. KRP18, decorated face, from the west (Photograph: Bert Verrept).
Plate 15.33. KRP18, main decorated area.
Plate 15.33. KRP18, main decorated area.
Figure 15.12. KRP18, no. 1, Man of counting Pashed. Plate 15.34. KRP18, no. 1, Man of counting Pashed.
Figure 15.12. KRP18, no. 1, Man of counting Pashed. Plate 15.34. KRP18, no. 1, Man of counting Pashed.
Plate 15.35. KRP18, nos 2 and 3, Ramose (upper) and [High Priest Nebnetjeru], effaced (lower).
Plate 15.35. KRP18, nos 2 and 3, Ramose (upper) and [High Priest Nebnetjeru], effaced (lower).
Plate 15.36. KRP18, no. 4, Scribe Amenaa.
Plate 15.36. KRP18, no. 4, Scribe Amenaa.
Figure 15.13. KRP18, no. 4, Scribe Amenaa.
Figure 15.13. KRP18, no. 4, Scribe Amenaa.
Plate 15.37. KRP18, no. 5, Scribe Djehutyhotep (upper), nos 6-8, Scribe Amenaa and two others (lower).
Plate 15.37. KRP18, no. 5, Scribe Djehutyhotep (upper), nos 6-8, Scribe Amenaa and two others (lower).
Plate 15.38. KRP18, nos 9-10. Chief retainer Huy (upper), Scribe Nebneteru (lower). Figure 15.16. KRP18, no. 9, Chief retainer Huy.
Plate 15.38. KRP18, nos 9-10. Chief retainer Huy (upper), Scribe Nebneteru (lower). Figure 15.16. KRP18, no. 9, Chief retainer Huy.
Figure 15.17. KRP18, no. 10, Scribe Nebnetjeru.
Figure 15.17. KRP18, no. 10, Scribe Nebnetjeru.
Plate 15.39. KRP18, no. 11, Scribe Nebnetjern.
Plate 15.39. KRP18, no. 11, Scribe Nebnetjern.
Plate 15.40. KRP18, no. 12, Scribe Nebnetern.
Plate 15.40. KRP18, no. 12, Scribe Nebnetern.
Plate 15.42. KRP18, nos 16-17, Mayor, Scribe Des (upper and lower). the ‘district of Elephantine’ (3bw), see Miiller 2013, 254-255, nos 38-41, to which add Gasse and Rondot 2007, SEH nos 398, 415, 416, 462, 463, 464. ” Cf. no. 7 above, with n. 63. 20. ‘Scribe of the dist[rict] (s¥ sp3f) [title damaged, name lost|’” ” Cf. no. 7 above, with n. 63. ® See nn 23 and 65, the ‘retainer’ in this unit of three (nos 21-23) prob- ably acting as the Chief’s ‘aide’ (right-hand man); cf. the smsw Huy, ‘aide’ to Viceroy Amenemipet, attested at Jebel Dosha and Buhen (Davies 2017, 62-63, n. 28, pl. 7). 7! For the title, that of a Treasury official (Miller 2013, 56-57, 252-255), see also KRP9, no. 3, the ‘district’ here in question probably that of ‘Miam’; note the nearby inscription of the ‘Chief of Miam’ (no. 21) and the name ‘P(a)-en-Mia(m)’ (no. 7), Miam being the only toponym attested at the Khashm el-Bab (for the title in full, from the Egyptian Eastern Desert, see n. 37 above). The title (again without toponym) is well attested at the Wadi Allaki (Piotrovsky 1983, 81, Index), where the ‘district’ referred to is possibly that of Kuban (cf. Cerny, 1947, 57); for numerous examples associated with
Plate 15.42. KRP18, nos 16-17, Mayor, Scribe Des (upper and lower). the ‘district of Elephantine’ (3bw), see Miiller 2013, 254-255, nos 38-41, to which add Gasse and Rondot 2007, SEH nos 398, 415, 416, 462, 463, 464. ” Cf. no. 7 above, with n. 63. 20. ‘Scribe of the dist[rict] (s¥ sp3f) [title damaged, name lost|’” ” Cf. no. 7 above, with n. 63. ® See nn 23 and 65, the ‘retainer’ in this unit of three (nos 21-23) prob- ably acting as the Chief’s ‘aide’ (right-hand man); cf. the smsw Huy, ‘aide’ to Viceroy Amenemipet, attested at Jebel Dosha and Buhen (Davies 2017, 62-63, n. 28, pl. 7). 7! For the title, that of a Treasury official (Miller 2013, 56-57, 252-255), see also KRP9, no. 3, the ‘district’ here in question probably that of ‘Miam’; note the nearby inscription of the ‘Chief of Miam’ (no. 21) and the name ‘P(a)-en-Mia(m)’ (no. 7), Miam being the only toponym attested at the Khashm el-Bab (for the title in full, from the Egyptian Eastern Desert, see n. 37 above). The title (again without toponym) is well attested at the Wadi Allaki (Piotrovsky 1983, 81, Index), where the ‘district’ referred to is possibly that of Kuban (cf. Cerny, 1947, 57); for numerous examples associated with
Figure 15.21. KRP18, no. 24, High Priest Nebneweru. Plate 15.44. KRP18, no. 24, High Priest Nebnetjeru. the rock-inscription ‘Mayor of Elephantine, Scribe reckoner of gold Djehutyhotep’ at Abrak in the Egyptian south-eastern desert.”’ Possibly contemporary is no. 13, ‘Scribe reckoner of The rock-inscriptions of Djehutyhotep and his brother at Abu Sir (Hintze and Reineke 1989, i, 37, no. 62, 39, no. 68, 40, no. 73, ii, pls 32 and 34) are distinctively similar in arrangement, orthography and type of content not only to each other but to the nearby inscription of the Scribe Amenhotep, which is dated to Year 16 of Thutmose IH (Hintze and Reineke 1989, i, 38, no. 64, ii, pl. 30). If this link is valid, it follows that they were contemporaries of our other Djehutyhotep, the ‘Chief of Tehkhet’ of KRP5. 7 De Bruyn 1956; cf, Andrassy, 2002, 10, n. 12; Miiller 2013, 253, 2.6.1, no. 33; Auenmiiller 2013, 922, BMElephantine-01. For the location of Abrak and the route of a mooted desert road between it and Aswan, see Sidebotham
Figure 15.21. KRP18, no. 24, High Priest Nebneweru. Plate 15.44. KRP18, no. 24, High Priest Nebnetjeru. the rock-inscription ‘Mayor of Elephantine, Scribe reckoner of gold Djehutyhotep’ at Abrak in the Egyptian south-eastern desert.”’ Possibly contemporary is no. 13, ‘Scribe reckoner of The rock-inscriptions of Djehutyhotep and his brother at Abu Sir (Hintze and Reineke 1989, i, 37, no. 62, 39, no. 68, 40, no. 73, ii, pls 32 and 34) are distinctively similar in arrangement, orthography and type of content not only to each other but to the nearby inscription of the Scribe Amenhotep, which is dated to Year 16 of Thutmose IH (Hintze and Reineke 1989, i, 38, no. 64, ii, pl. 30). If this link is valid, it follows that they were contemporaries of our other Djehutyhotep, the ‘Chief of Tehkhet’ of KRP5. 7 De Bruyn 1956; cf, Andrassy, 2002, 10, n. 12; Miiller 2013, 253, 2.6.1, no. 33; Auenmiiller 2013, 922, BMElephantine-01. For the location of Abrak and the route of a mooted desert road between it and Aswan, see Sidebotham
2. On the left (Plate 15.48, Figure 15.23), a title, name and filiation: ‘Priest (am-nir) Herunefer, son of [priest (am-ntr) [Ho]remheb’.'° An animal drawing (a quadruped of some kind) has been partly superimposed on the father’s name and title with consequent loss to parts of some of the signs but the reading is clear on 7#-situ inspection. Incised into the southern cliff-face of a long sandstone hill, densely covered by rock-drawings, there are two horizontal lines of hieroglyphs located several metres apart, well above head-height (Plate 15.46), both referring to ‘Herunefer’ Lazaridis 2019, 596-7). The second example (no. 24) was probably the result of a subsequent visit; it is located on a different section of the rock, to the left of the main face, much higher up and well out of easy reach. on naa
2. On the left (Plate 15.48, Figure 15.23), a title, name and filiation: ‘Priest (am-nir) Herunefer, son of [priest (am-ntr) [Ho]remheb’.'° An animal drawing (a quadruped of some kind) has been partly superimposed on the father’s name and title with consequent loss to parts of some of the signs but the reading is clear on 7#-situ inspection. Incised into the southern cliff-face of a long sandstone hill, densely covered by rock-drawings, there are two horizontal lines of hieroglyphs located several metres apart, well above head-height (Plate 15.46), both referring to ‘Herunefer’ Lazaridis 2019, 596-7). The second example (no. 24) was probably the result of a subsequent visit; it is located on a different section of the rock, to the left of the main face, much higher up and well out of easy reach. on naa
Plate 15.46. KRP22, recording inscription no. 1 (Photograph: Bert Verrept).
Plate 15.46. KRP22, recording inscription no. 1 (Photograph: Bert Verrept).
Plate 15.47. KRP22, no. 1, inscription of Herunefer invoking Horus Lord of Buben.
Plate 15.47. KRP22, no. 1, inscription of Herunefer invoking Horus Lord of Buben.
Figure 15.22. KRP22, no. 1, Priest Herunefer, invocation to Horus Lord of Buben. Plate 15.48. KRP22, no. 2, inscription of Herunefer with filiation.
Figure 15.22. KRP22, no. 1, Priest Herunefer, invocation to Horus Lord of Buben. Plate 15.48. KRP22, no. 2, inscription of Herunefer with filiation.
Figure 15.23. KRP22, no. 2, Priest Herunefer with filation.
Figure 15.23. KRP22, no. 2, Priest Herunefer with filation.
Plate 15.49. KRP23, cave, from north. Plate 15.50. KRP23, interior, rock-drawings and inscription.
Plate 15.49. KRP23, cave, from north. Plate 15.50. KRP23, interior, rock-drawings and inscription.
metre above the floor, is a single, roughly pecked, horizontal line of hieroglyphs (Plates 15.50 and 15.51) reading, right to left, ‘Priest (am-ntr) Herunefer’.!*
metre above the floor, is a single, roughly pecked, horizontal line of hieroglyphs (Plates 15.50 and 15.51) reading, right to left, ‘Priest (am-ntr) Herunefer’.!*
Plate 15.51. KRP23, inscription of Priest Herunefer.
Plate 15.51. KRP23, inscription of Priest Herunefer.
Plate 15.52. KRP2, Wadi Murrat. 1. The first and foremost is located on a protruding rock- face, in a wooded area, at the base of the hill (Plate 15.53), where water, evidently here regarded as a gift of the god Horus, is readily accessible, just below the wadi-surface (Plates 15.54 and 15.55).1°
Plate 15.52. KRP2, Wadi Murrat. 1. The first and foremost is located on a protruding rock- face, in a wooded area, at the base of the hill (Plate 15.53), where water, evidently here regarded as a gift of the god Horus, is readily accessible, just below the wadi-surface (Plates 15.54 and 15.55).1°
Plate 15.53. KRP2, wooded area with inscribed rock faces.
Plate 15.53. KRP2, wooded area with inscribed rock faces.
Plate 15.54. KRP2, recent excavation of wadi floor by gold miners.
Plate 15.54. KRP2, recent excavation of wadi floor by gold miners.
Figure 15.24. KRP2, no. 1, Priest Herunefer, figure of Horus. Plate 15.56. KRP2, no. 1, inscriptions of Priest Herunefer with Horus-figure.
Figure 15.24. KRP2, no. 1, Priest Herunefer, figure of Horus. Plate 15.56. KRP2, no. 1, inscriptions of Priest Herunefer with Horus-figure.
Within its domain, this well-placed Buhen Figure 15.25. KRP2, no. 1, Horus-figures with earlier drawing.
Within its domain, this well-placed Buhen Figure 15.25. KRP2, no. 1, Horus-figures with earlier drawing.
Plate 15.57. KRP2, no. 1, figures of Horus and native cattle-drawing
Plate 15.57. KRP2, no. 1, figures of Horus and native cattle-drawing
Plate 15.60. Map with possible route of Herunefer’s journey(s).
Plate 15.60. Map with possible route of Herunefer’s journey(s).
Plate 15.61. Wadi Nesari, inscription of Bakenamun, with Alfredo Castighoni (courtesy CERDO).
Plate 15.61. Wadi Nesari, inscription of Bakenamun, with Alfredo Castighoni (courtesy CERDO).

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Bettina Bader
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Glass Vessels from the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods at Khirbat Burnat (Southwest)
Tamar Winter
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Pottery. in J.S. Kharakwal, T. Osada and Y.S. Rawat eds. Excavation at Kanmer. Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto. pp. 219-480
Akinori Uesugi

2012

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Saida Ilyasova. Glazed Bowls of the 11th-12th centuries from Ferghana // San'at. Journal of the Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan. Tashkent, 2013, No. 3, 9-11.
Saida Ilyasova
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JERASH BOWLS: Study of a Provincial Group of Byzantine Decorated Fine Ware (1989) Syria 66
Pam Watson

Fragments from a group of stamped and painted pictorial bowls dating to the sixth and early seventh centuries A.D., have been found at numerous sites in middle and northern Jordan. While they are of considerable interest both to the archaeologist and the art historian, they have been poorly understood and scantily published. Recent excavations, in particular at Jerash, have begun to redress this situation, and the writer is at present engaged in a detailed study of the group as a whole.' The bowls are commonly referred to as "Jerash Bowls", largely because they were first identified at that site during the Yale excavations of the late 1920's and early 1930's and were recovered there in considerable quantity.2 Further excavations and recent research have confirmed this attribution.

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  367. The hand-axe and denticulated tool Donatella Usai Lanceolate hand-axes like that found at site KRP18(8) (Plate 14.1) are common to Middle Pleistocene/Early to Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Nile Valley. The first known assem- blage that produced similar artefacts is Khor Abu Anga, discovered by Arkell (1949) in the area of Omdurman, close to Khartoum; during the Nubian Salvage Campaign other sites of the same phase were found at Arkin District, notably Arkin 8 (Chmielewski 1968). The material recovered at these sites come from surface context but a dating at the Middle Pleistocene/Middle Palaeolithic period has been recently substantiated by the excavation at Sai island, slightly upstream from the Second Cataract (Van Peer 2004; (Van Peer, et al. 2003; 2004). Here hand-axes have been found in a Late Acheulean/Sangoan inter-stratified context dating c. 180 Ka. To a later period may be possibly attributed the denticulated tool from KRP9(4) (Plate 14.2) made on a multiplatform core blade-like blank. Denticulated tools start to appear common in association with core technologies, especially with Leval- lois, in Middle Palaeolithic (Guichard and Guichard 1968).
  368. Arkell, A. J. 1949. The Old Stone Age in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Sudan Antiquities Service, Occasional Papers. Khartoum.
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  373. is well known from his tomb at Debeira/Serra (ancient Tehkhet) and other monuments. Belonging to a family of indigenous chiefs (preceded as chief by his father and suc- ceeded by his brother) with relatives/forebears in Aswan, he governed his region as part of the colonial administration of the early 18 th Dynasty. 9 Several of his other inscriptions associate him closely with Queen Hatshepsut. The presence of his name, title, and image at Umm Nabari, marking his authority and reach, suggests that his duties included over- sight of the gold-mining area. He is one of three 'Chiefs', no doubt with similar briefs, attested as travelling in the Nubian Eastern Desert. 10 The second, also of the 18 th Dynasty, is the well-known 'Chief of Miam (Aniba), Hekanefer', who served Tutankhamun's viceroy, Huy. His title and name oc- cur at CeRDO site A (Plates 15.1 and 15.2) incised in large hieroglyphs into the rear wall of a rock-shelter (Plates 15.8 and 15.9), 11 in front of which were found fragments of con- 9 On attestations and various aspects of the 'princes of Tehkhet', includ- ing Djehutyhotep-Paitsy, his father and mother, Ruiu and Runa, his brother Amenemhat, and other relatives, see PM vii, 128; Smith 1976, 208-209;
  374. Säve-Söderbergh and Troy 1991, 190-211; Trigger 1996, 807; Davies 2004b;
  375. Edwards 2004, 108; Davies 2005, 54, with n. 68; Edel et al. 2008, 924-925, 927-928, 937, Abb. 9, Taf. LXI, scene 17-18; Zibelius-Chen 2007, 403; Török 2009, 265-270, 272; Zibelius-Chen 2011, 170-171, 174; Morkot 2013, 945- 947;
  376. Mūller 2013, 51-54, 244-246, nos 1-4; Näser 2013, 148; Zibelius-Chen 2013, 144-145, Abb. 9; Arpagaus 2015, 475-477; Smith 2015, 768, pl. VII, fig. 2; Doyen and Gabolde 2017, 152; Spencer et al. 2017, 42; Williams 2017, 311-312; 2018, 100, 104; Cooper 2018a, 676; Spence 2019, 545-546, 553-556. Note that Ruiu is not be confused with his contemporary namesake, the 'Deputy of the Viceroy', Ruiu, from Aniba (tomb S 66); see now Zibelius- Chen 2011, 170; Müller 2013, 198, no. 3; Näser 2017, 566-571, figs 7-9, 11. 10 On a suggested Medja-ancestry for such chiefs, see Trigger 1996, 807;
  377. Zibelius-Chen 2007, 403-404; 2011, 170-171; Cooper 2018a, 676. 11 Castiglioni and Castiglioni 1994, 20; Castiglioni et al. 1995, 26, 112, map (Itinerario C), 118-122, 180-181, B 34; Sadr et al., 1995, 225, pl. 3, b;
  378. Damiano-Appia 1999, 513-517, 540, fig. 1, WH-1; Castiglioni and Castiglioni 2006a, 409, fig. 27; 2007, 37-8, fig. 26; Cooper and Vanhulle 2019, 3, Map 1, and 5; Castiglioni and Castiglioni, this volume, 33-4, pl. 4.37; further, on Hekanefer, see Simpson 1963; Zibelius 1972, 37, V E b 40; Trigger 1996, 803-807; Edwards 2004, 108; Fitzenreiter 2004, 176-7; Mahfouz 2005, 69-70;
  379. Zibelius-Chen 2007, 403; Török 2009, 271-2; Zibelius-Chen 2011, 170-171;
  380. Ramesses VI), also from Aniba (Müller 2013, 46, 48, 77-78, 319-320, An.
  381. KRI IV, 207, III.1; KRITA IV, 149-150; DRITANC IV, 188; KRI IV, 23 Černý 1947, 57; Chevereau 1994, 92-3, 94-96 ('Cadres de la Garde');
  382. Hikade 2001, 70; and Müller 2013, 42-43, 188-190: 'Die Mehrzahl der Belege sind Felsinschriften entlang des Nils zwischen den Niederlassungen und auf den Karawanen- wegen, wie im Wadi Allaqi. So stellten sie die Verbindung zwischen Residenz und den Bergwerken…'; see further on the 'military connotations of the Smsw and Hry Smsw titles', Klotz and Brown 2016, 295. On the comparable roles and versatility of earlier Smsw, serving in Lower Nubian fortresses during the Middle Kingdom/late Middle Kingdom, see Vogel 2004, 104-105; Liszka and Kraemer 2016, 191-193; Gratien 2019, 158-163. 24 The title idnw n pDt/idnw pDt is uncommon; see Chevereau 1994, 89-90, 11161; cf. Pamminger 2003, 33 (p. 90).
  383. See Müller 2013, 40, 56; DRITANC, III, 246: 'Mery would have been responsible for the transhipment of gold accruing from the mines of the eastern desert of Lower Nubia back to the Nile valley'. In the context of such protection, note the letter from the High-Priest of Amenre, Ramessesnakht (temp. Ramesses IX), to a 'troop' of Nubians of the land of Ikyt (Wadi Al- laki;
  384. see Zibelius-Chen 1994, 412-416; 2011, 101; Cooper 2018a, 671, fig. 1, 672; 2020, 130-136) acknowledging their success in protecting gold-washing teams against Bedouin enemies from the Red Sea coast and ordering that the work-force be escorted back with the gold to Egypt (Helck 1967, 140-144, 148-150;
  385. KRI VI, 519-521, Doc. C; KRITA VI, 385-386; Zibelius-Chen 1988, 157; Wente 1990, 38-39, no. 38; Zibelius-Chen 1994, 413; Hikade 2001, 59- 60;
  386. Morris 2005, 786; Zibelius-Chen 2007, 405; 2011, 101; Müller 2013, 77). 26 For reasons of space, an abbreviated writing of the more usual nb &A-%ty, 'lord of the Land of Nubia'; for the latter epithet, Leitz 2002, III, 772-3; cf. El-Sayed 2011, 13, 254, L 309; Zibelius-Chen 2014, 268; Gabolde 2018, 99-100; Ullmann 2019, 511; for a similar, contemporary abbreviation (&3 omitted), cf. Reineke 2017, 271-272, Askut 7, column 2; also the partial precedent, @r %ty, 'Horus of Nubia', from Wadi el-Hudi (Middle Kingdom), Leitz 2002, V, 291.
  387. Cf. Černý 1947, 57, pls x, 2-3, xi, 2-3; Piotrovsky 1983, 45-48, 50, 55, 57, 58-59, 61-63; Gasse and Rondot 2007, 385 (Index);
  388. Rothe et el., 2008, 26, 176, 252, 269, 336; Espinel 2012, 98-102; Brown and Darnell 2013, 135, nn 83-84;
  389. Brown 2017, 189-191; cf. an interesting scene of Horus-worship, in
  390. The outermost, in a practised, semi-cursive, hand: 'Mayor Mesu' (Plate 15.23, Figure 15.7).
  391. A little further inside, in large hieroglyphs, slightly cursive: 'High Priest Nebnetjeru' (Plate 15.24, right, Figure 15.8). 33
  392. To the left, above the row of giraffe-figures, small hi- eroglyphs, slightly cursive, at least one section superimposed on the neck of a giraffe-figure, the whole now eroded and partly illegible: 'Scribe of the district (sS spAt) 34 Amen[…] (?), … (?)' (Plates 15.24 and 15.25).
  393. Comment Given that Aniba (Miam) appears to have been the primary source of the region's travelling officials, the 'Mayor Mesu' (no. 1) is very probably the 'Mayor of Miam Mes(u)' attested in a visitor inscription at the temple of Ellesiya, 35 possibly of a rock-stela at the Dal Cataract, of a form more typical of a desert context, the owner probably known also from the Wadi Allaki (Davies 2018, 53, no.
  394. fig. 11, pl. 13). The earliest inscriptional reference to the god Horus in our corpus is that of the pre-New Kingdom KRP14 (see below).
  395. For the name in general, see PN i, 378, 4, both male and female, mostly the latter, to which add, from Aniba, Steindorff 1937, 164-5 (S 23), no. 19, and 234-5 (SA 34), no. 4. 29 Smith and Buzon 2017, 618, fig. 3, 620-622, 624, fig. 11, b; Smith 2018, 74-5, fig. 5, 80-81, pl. 12; Smith and Buzon 2018, 207, 211, fig. 6. 30 Smith and Buzon 2017, 616-617, fig. 1, 620, fig. 6; Smith 2018, 73-4, fig. 4; Smith and Buzon 2018, 207-208, fig. 2, and 222; Spencer 2019b, 113. 31 Cf. Müller 2013, 87. 32 The figures are eroded but shown as if progressing one after the other. On the iconography and symbolism of the giraffe in rock-art and other media in Egypt and Nubia, see Cannyuer 2010, 39-194; Kleinitz 2013, 346, 349- 350, fig. 5; for its role in the painted scenes/ royal funerary iconography of the Kerma Classique period at Kerma, see Bonnet 2000, 76, 79-83, figs 58-61, 98-99, fig. 70; Chaix 2000, 165, fig. 118; cf. Doyen and Gabolde 2017, 154. 33 Reading Hm-nTr tp(y), 'lI sacerdote di primo rango' (Roccati in Castiglioni and Castiglioni 2006b, 179), the tp-sign (D1) simplified in form, as it is in the title of the same man in KRP18, no. 24; cf., perhaps, López 1966, 18, no.
  396. 9, 20, no. 13, pls vi and ix, 1 (photos a little unclear). 34 For the form of the spAt-sign (Aa8) here, cf. Piotrovsky 1983, 50, 90, 149, no. 59. 35 PM vii, 91; Borla 2010, 90, a5, 103, 233, pl. 21, a.5; Mūller 2013, 206, the 18 th dynasty, sometime after the reign of Thutmose III (the temple was built at the very end of the latter's reign). 36
  397. Aniba might also have been the 'district' of our 'Scribe of the district' (no. 3, name and date uncertain; cf. KRP18, no. 20). 37
  398. The 'High Priest Nebnetjeru' (no. 2), seemingly the only 'High Priest' (Hm-nTr tp(
  399. 5.2, 1, and 412, 28.6; Auenmüller 2013, 926, BMAniba-02, a and b. 36 Davies and Welsby Sjöström 2016, 18, with n. 5. The inscription, now incomplete, is located on the ingress (right wall) to the temple-doorway. Note the observation of Dewachter 1971, 91, n. 6, that private inscriptions might not have been permitted inside the temple proper before the Rames- side period. 37 For the title with the toponym, see 'Scribe of the district, Djehutymose, of Miam', dating to the 18 th Dynasty, from the Wadi Barramyia in the Egyptian Eastern Desert (Rothe et al. 2008, 117, BR07; Brown 2017, 191-193, fig. 9). ing regions, 38 is known also from KRP18, nos 3 and 24. If, as seems likely, he is the same man as the well-known 'Scribe 38 No 'High Priest' is certainly attested among the many priests (twenty- nine in all, mostly Hm-nTr) recorded at the Wadi Allaki; see Piotrovsky 1983, 82-83 (Index). On the role of temple-personnel (often numerous) in such expeditions, see Hikade 2001, 43: 'Ihre Funktion ist nicht sicher zu bestimmen. Neben ihren priesterlichen Aufgaben dürften zie z.T. dem Versorgungsapparat der Expedition angehört haben'. 45
  400. Davies 2014, 35-36; Cooper 2018a, 674; 2018b, 144, with n. 2; cf. Ilin- Tomich 2016, 9; Rilly 2017, 71-72.
  401. Koenig 1990, 103, A1, 104, b, 118-119, line 1, 120-121, line 1, 124-125, line 1; El-Sayed 2011, 294-295, L 400. 47 Koenig 1990, 102; cf. Ritner 1993, 140, n. 620, 153, n. 695; Ryholt 2010, 253-254, Table 70. 48 The Mirgissa corpus is closely related to two other sets of execration texts, originally from Thebes and Saqqara respectively (on the Levantine con- tent of the latter two, see now Streit 2017; for a new project on the Saqqara set, in Brussels, see Van der Perre 2017). All three sets record the names of Nubian royal family members, representing a lineage which, according to a reassessment by Williams (2013, 73, n. 71; cf. Williams 2018, 101), should be dated 'from the end of the Twelfth into the Thirteenth Dynasties' (see also now Cooper 2018b, 159-161, who admits of remaining uncertainties).
  402. Khartoum, SNM 14221; Wildung 1997; Berengeur 2003; Vogel 2004, 77, n. 70; Roccati 2007, 57-58, fig. 4; Vogel 2011, 323-324; Knoblauch 2012, 90, fig. 2, and 93. The figural iconography of the Argin stela is very similar to that on military stamp-sealings known from a number of Middle Kingdom fortress-sites (Wegner 1995, 144-148, figs 9-10) and on broadly contemporary stelae, possibly border-markers, from Buhen and elsewhere (Knoblauch 2012;
  403. Manzo 2016, 21-23; Cooper 2018b, 157; Williams 2018, 102).
  404. Cooper 2018b, 143, 148.
  405. Cf. the deity's presence on the Argin border stela cited above (n. 49; cf.
  406. Davies 2014, 35, n. 19; Cooper 2018b, 148, n. 26), as well as, further afield, on late Middle Kingdom/Second Intermediate Period royal stelae from the galena mining-site at Gebel el-Zeit (Régen and Soukassian 2008, 15-16, 18- 20, 19, 52, 56-57, nos 3 and 5; cf. Leitz 2002, III, 710-711). Plate 15.28. KRP14, cave entrance, from south. Plate 15.29. KRP14, interior, boulder with inscriptions. Plate 15.31. KRP18, Khashm el-Bab, from the south. Plate 15.32. KRP18, decorated face, from the west (Photograph: Bert Verrept). Plate 15.33. KRP18, main decorated area.
  407. 'Mayor, Scribe Desnefer' (Plate 15.42, upper).
  408. 'Mayor, Scribe Desnefer' (Plate 15.42, lower).
  409. Left, right to left, top to bottom (Plate 15.43, Figure 15.20):
  410. 'May' (MAy) 68 (?)
  411. 'Retainer 69 Nakh(t)' 70
  412. 68 Taking the first hieroglyph as a writing of the mA-sign (U2); for the name, possibly MAi, 'Lion', see PN i, 144, 1, with 144, 2-14; cf. Rothe et al. 2008, 228, SL09; Brown and Darnell 2013, 127, with n. 17; on the name's extended variants, see now Lakomy 2016, 65-66, with n. 84, to which add Davies, 2017b, 61, fig. 1, with n. 16. 69 See nn. 23 and 65. 70 Cf. PN i, 209, 16.
  413. 'Scribe of the dist[rict] (sS spAt) [title damaged, name lost]' 71 71 For the title, that of a Treasury official (Müller 2013, 56-57, 252-255), see also KRP9, no. 3, the 'district' here in question probably that of 'Miam'; note the nearby inscription of the 'Chief of Miam' (no. 21) and the name 'P(a)-en-Mia(m)' (no. 7), Miam being the only toponym attested at the Khashm el-Bab (for the title in full, from the Egyptian Eastern Desert, see n. 37 above). The title (again without toponym) is well attested at the Wadi Allaki (Piotrovsky 1983, 81, Index), where the 'district' referred to is possibly that of Kuban (cf. Černý, 1947, 57);
  414. 'High Priest Nebnetjeru' 74 (Plate 15.44, Figure 15.21). and 113 (Tonqala);
  415. Firth 1910-11, pl. 12, c and e (Mediq); cf. Žába 1974, 221; KRI III, 121, III.12; KRITA III, 82-83;
  416. DRITANC III, 108-109; Peden 2001, 117, n. 363; Hikade 2001, 239-240, 259, nos. 228-231; Espinel 2012, 101, fig. 7.7; Müller 2013, 265, 2.6.4, no. 12; Köpp-Junk 2015, 238; Auenmüller 2019b, 406-407, with fig.
  417. Another Lower Nubian official with the same name, though different title and no clear connection to our scribe, is 'Retainer (Smsw) Nebnetjeru' from Toshka East/Gebel Agg (PM vii, 94; Černý 1947, 57; Simpson 1963, 41, fig. 33, pl. xx, c; KRI III, 121, n. 1a; Müller 2013, 189, 2.4. 1, no. 14); cf. also 'Priest (hm-ntr) of Thoth, god's father, mayor, Nebnetjeru' from Abu Simbel (see n. 39 above).
  418. PM vii, 81; Steindorff 1937, 27, no. 57, pl. 13, no. 55; Žába 1974, 221;
  419. KRI III, 121, n. 1a; Müller 2013, 217, 2.5.3 a 30; 421, 30. 64. 90 Černý 1947, 55, nos 27-28, pl. ix, 3; Piotrovsky 1983, 53, 160, nos 100- 101;
  420. Hikade 2001, 239, nos 227-228; DRITANC III, 109. 91 Firth 1910-11, pl. 12, c, upper line; KRI III, 121, III.12, 2; KRITA III, 83;
  421. DRITANC III, 108-109; Müller 2013, 224, 2.5.3 C 10. The inscription is closely associated with that of the contemporary 'Overseer of the granary (also 'Scribe of the granary'), Horemheb, son of Nakhtmin, of Kuban' (Firth 1910-11, pl. 12, c, lower line; KRI III, 124, III. 20; KRITA III, 84; DRITANC III, 111; Müller 2013, 265, 2.6.4, no. 8).
  422. DRITANC III, 108-109.
  423. 93 Piotrovsky 1983, 60, 171, no. 155. The inscription is located directly above the rock-stela of the 'Overseer of the granary, Deputy of Wawat, Horhotep…' (Piotrovsky 1983, 60, 170, no. 154; Hikade 2001, 70, 260, no. 264; Müller 2013, 64, 201, 2.5.1, no. 16, 263, 2.6.4, no. 2).
  424. On the temple and deity, see Kormysheva 1996, 141-142; Leitz 2002, III, 619-620; Török 2009, 222, 234, 261; Ullmann 2009, 249, with n. 14;
  425. Kormysheva 2013, 154; Müller 2013, 89, 223-224, 2.5.
  426. C, no. 4, relating to the 'First lector-priest of Horus Lord of Kuban Khnummose' (see now Gasse and Rondot 2007, 185, 508, SEH 305; and cf. 'Priest Khnummose of Horus Lord of Kuban', perhaps the same person [Piotrovsky 1983, 72, no. 72; also 73, no. 96]); Kuckertz and Lohwasser 2016, 25-26, fig. 4; Ullmann 2019, 511, 521, 528. 95 Černý 1947, 54, no. 11, pl. X, 2; Piotrovsky 1983, 45, 140, no. 7; Es- pinel 2012, 100, fig. 7.6; DRITANC III, 108-9. Though the Horus-figure in question is unidentified, there is little doubt that it represents Horus of Kuban. In the one case in the Wadi Allaki where a falcon-figure is specifically identified, with the accompanying inscription still intact, the falcon is named 'Horus Lord of Bak' (Piotrovsky 1983, 59, 169, no. 153, to which add, very probably, 59, 167, no. 151; cf. Espinel 2012, 100, fig. 7.6). For the frequency and overwhelming prevalence of the deity's mentions in the inscriptional corpus, see Piotrovsky 1983, 84 (Index).
  427. See n. 89 above. 97 The effacement of one of the examples (no. 3) is noteworthy, as a targeted damnatio memoriae of this kind is relatively rare in such contexts (cf.
  428. Jebel Nasb Enat, Rock face (Plate 15.45; CeRDO site E; Castiglioni and Castiglioni 2007, 19-20, fig. 3; Roccati 2007, 58; Davies 2014, 37-38, pls 17-18; Cooper and Vanhulle 2019, 3, Map 1, and 7);
  429. Castiglioni and Castiglioni, this volume, 49, pl. 5.6; Welsby, this volume, 157-158. Incised into the southern cliff-face of a long sandstone hill, densely covered by rock-drawings, there are two horizontal lines of hieroglyphs located several metres apart, well above head-height (Plate 15.46), both referring to 'Herunefer' Lazaridis 2019, 596-7). The second example (no. 24) was probably the result of a subsequent visit; it is located on a different section of the rock, to the left of the main face, much higher up and well out of easy reach. 98 See n 33 above.
  430. Müller 2013, 279, Tab. 2.7.6, no. 80, 411, 27.25. 100 For an account of modern travellers and inscriptions/graffiti along the 'Korosko Road' (the section in modern Egypt), including the rendering of a name in 'hieroglyphs' dated to 1845, see Žába 1974, 118-119, figs 179-180;
  431. Malek 1984, 47, 49-50. (!<rw>-nfr), 101 possibly the products of separate visits.
  432. On the right (the easternmost), an abbreviated offering- formula: '(Gift that) the king gives and Horus Lord of Buhen, 102 (for) priest (Hm-nTr) Herunefer' (Plate 15.47, Figure 15.22).
  433. On the left (Plate 15.48, Figure 15.23), a title, name and filiation: 'Priest (Hm-nTr)
  434. Herunefer, son of [pri]est (Hm-nTr)
  435. remheb'. 103 An animal drawing (a quadruped of some kind) has been partly superimposed on the father's name and title with consequent loss to parts of some of the signs but the reading is clear on in-situ inspection.
  436. Cf. PN, i, 228, 229, no. 2, 231, no. 4. 102 For the epithet, Leitz 2002, III, 621; Ullmann 2019, 512, 521. For the toponym Bhn written, as here, without the final n, see Zibelius 1972, 109;
  437. Smith 1976, 88, 90, VII-VIII; El-Sayed 2011, 191, L 57; Brown and Darnell 2013, 131, n. 44, fig. 2; Davies 2017b, 63-64, n. 31, figs 2-3, pl. 9; Cooper 2018b, 153. This inscription represents the sole example of an offering- formula, albeit abbreviated, in this desert corpus (cf. Auenmüller, 2009b, 398; 2019c, 196), here emphasising the author's close relationship with, and dependence on, his home deity. 103 Part of the tail of the Horus-sign survives. Plate 15.45. KRP22, rock face. Plate 15.46. KRP22, recording inscription no. 1 (Photograph: Bert Verrept).
  438. for travellers, as signalled by Herunefer's rock 'shrine' with tableaux featuring figures of Horus, no doubt in acknowledge- ment of the god's benevolence, as well as by the huge quanti- ties of native rock-drawings, already noted, on the wadi sides. Herunefer's close connection with the temple and town of Buhen is indicated by the invocation in KPR22, no. 1, Zibelius-Chen 1994, 417; Edwards 2004, 109; Klemm and Klemm 2013, 23- 25, 294-295; Müller 2013, 76-77, 88; Zibelius-Chen 2013, 148). to 'Horus, Lord of Buhen', and by another rock-inscription from Tōmas, done in his distinctive style, which reads, 'Priest Herunefer of Buhen'. 114 The name and title of his father, 'Priest Horemheb', recorded in KRP22, no. 2, is important new information. The latter is very likely the same man as the 'Second Priest of Horus, Lord of [Buhen], Horem- heb', the member of a well-known family of temple-priests from Buhen with roots in the gold-working industry. 115 This Horemheb was the second son of the 'Overseer of craftsmen, overseer of the priests of all the gods, Mer- nodjem' (an associate of the viceroy Setau), 116 and grandson of the 'Chief goldworker (Hry nbyw) Khnummose'. 117 His elder brother, another Herunefer, was 'High Priest of Horus of Buhen', 'God's scribe' and 'Mayor'. 118 Within its domain, this well-placed Buhen family is broadly comparable to the contemporary Aniba fam- ily of Hornakht (KRP8), and indeed to the earlier Djehutyho- tep family based at Elephantine (KRP18, no. 5), displaying similar in-house advancement and monopoly of senior roles, across official spheres and through the generations, with the 114 Leclant, 1963, 21-22, pl. vi, fig. 11; 1965, 9, fig. 1; cf. Espinel 2012, 101; Auenmüller 2019b, 406. The inscription is placed directly underneath, and aligned with, an inscription of the viceroy Setau (KRI III, 101-102, 51, no. 44; KRITA III, 70; DRITANC 88-89; Raedler 2003, 142, no. 62, 155; Müller 2013, 409, 27.2). 115 The family dominates the surviving record of the priesthood at Buhen;
  439. see Smith 1976, 203-205. On the hierarchy among the priests and other staff in the Nubian temples, including the roles accorded to well-connected females (wives, daughters, etc), see Müller 2013, 49-51, 55, 64; cf. Auenmül- ler 2018, 255-256. 116 Cf. Raedler 2003, 158, 163, fig. 15.
  440. KRI III, 94-95, no. 26; 132-135, no. 84, III.33; KRITA III, 65, 89-91;
  441. DRITANC III, 82, 120-123; Mūller 2013, 50, 185, 2.3.2, no. 32, 221, 2.5.
  442. B, nos 2-3, 236-237, 2.5.
  443. H, no. 1, 440, 38.73, 441, 38.74 and 38.80. 118 Smith 1976, 203, 216; Bierbrier 1982, 23-24, pls 54-55, stela, second register, and bottom section, last line; KRI III, 132, no. 84, III. 33, 133, 4-5, 134, 2-3 and 14, 135, 2; DRITANC III, 121-122; Mūller 2013, 221, 2.5.3 B, no. 2; Auenmüller 2013, 929, BMBuhen-03; also perhaps the same individual in the rock-inscription, 'Made by Priest, Mayor, Herunefer', at Abd el-Qadir, not far south of Buhen (where the inscription below it, done in a different style, is surely not connected);
  444. see Hintze and Reineke 1989, 34-35, no. 57, pl. 27; Müller 2013, 211, 2.5.2, no. 25; Auenmüller 2013, 936-937, BMNu- bien-06. For the relatively uncommon title 'God's scribe', see Al-Ayedi 2006, 558, nos 1862-63; Lazaridis 2015, 48, n. 21, 58, fig. 7; 2017, 331, n. 17, fig. 8. Figure 15.25. KRP2, no. 1, Horus-figures with earlier drawing. Plate 15.57. KRP2, no. 1, figures of Horus and native cattle-drawing. Plate 15.58. KRP2, no. 2, boulder with inscription of Priest Herunefer. Plate 15.59. KRP2, no. 2, inscription of Herunefer. hotep III (Piotrovsky 1983, 51, 153, no. 74, 51, no 82, 52, no. 81 [for the reading, Klotz and Brown 2016, 293-295, with n. 170];
  445. 64, no. 180, 65, no. 189; cf. Hikade 2001, 69-71, 259-260, nos 224-269: 'Die Inschriften aus dem
  446. Wadi Allaki, see Zibelius-Chen 1994, 413; Klotz and Brown 2016, 295-296;
  447. Cooper 2020, 129. There is no reason to doubt that the exploitation of the Umm Nabari region, like that of the Wadi Allaki, continued beyond the 19 th Dynasty, though, as already noted above, with apparently diminishing returns (see n. 113).
  448. See Urk. iv, 709, 6; 721,3; 728, 12; 734,3; Hikade 2001, 71, 92-3, Table 3; cf. Spalinger 2006, 365; Klemm and Klemm 2013, 11, 23-25, 608-609, fig. 7.4, 610; 2017, 260-261, fig. 1; 2018, 61-62; Spencer et al., 2017, 30, 32. On the further general intensification of Eastern Desert gold exploitation under Amenhotep III, directed by Merymose, see Zibelius-Chen 1994, 415-417;
  449. Darnell 2013, 828; Morkot 2013, 938; Zibelius-Chen 2013, 148; Brown 2017, 178ff.
  450. See Zibelius-Chen 1994, 412-417, 2007, 404-405; 2014, 294-295, on campaigns against the desert regions of Ibhet, Ikyt and Irem; cf. Raedler 2009, 334; Davies 2017a, 73-75, 97; and recently on the toponyms, Cooper 2020, 125-136, and 383. 144 On the mainly riverine route of the Thutmose I campaign on its way to Kurgus, south of Abu Hamed (in the land of Miu), see Davies 2017a, 93-6, fig. 36. Note that New Kingdom inscriptions have yet to be identified anywhere along the northernmost section of the caravan route (about 100km in length) between Korosko and the Khashm el-Bab. For rock-inscriptions of Middle Kingdom travellers located on the route 'about 16 kilometres south of Korosko', see Žába 1974, 117-119, nos 78-80, and Malek 1984, 50, who cautions: 'they do not necessarily prove that the caravan route was used by them at that time'; cf. Berg 1987, 8, n. 11; Cooper 2020, 133, n. 122. The route or routes by which the much-discussed military drummer Emhab of Edfu, dating from the late Second Intermediate Period, reached Miu, while on campaign, remain a matter of speculation, though the possibility that a desert-crossing (surely not the entire length of the Korosko Road) occurred at some point (perhaps from Buhen) should not be discounted (for bibliog- raphy, see Davies 2017a, 94, n. 80, adding Cooper 2018b, 146; 2020, 381-2).
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